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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  78        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  80        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  81        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  83        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  85        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  86        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  89        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  93        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  94        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  95        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  96        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  97        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
  98        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
  99        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 100        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 101        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 104        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 105            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 106        ),
 107        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 108            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 109        ),
 110        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 112        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 113        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 114        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 115        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 116        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 117        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 118        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 119        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 120        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 125        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 127        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 129        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 130        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 131        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 133        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 134        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 135        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 136        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 137        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 139        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 140        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 141        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 142        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 143        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 144        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 145        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 146        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 147        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 148        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 150    }
 151
 152    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 153    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 154    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 155
 156    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 157    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 158    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 159
 160    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 161    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 162
 163    # Always do union distinct or union all
 164    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 165
 166    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 167    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 168
 169    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 170    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 171
 172    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 173    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 174
 175    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 176    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 177
 178    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 179    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 180
 181    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 182    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 183
 184    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 185    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 186
 187    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 188    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 189
 190    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 191    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 192
 193    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 194    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 195
 196    # Whether join hints should be generated
 197    JOIN_HINTS = True
 198
 199    # Whether table hints should be generated
 200    TABLE_HINTS = True
 201
 202    # Whether query hints should be generated
 203    QUERY_HINTS = True
 204
 205    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 206    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 207
 208    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 209    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 210
 211    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 212    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 213
 214    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 215    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 216
 217    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 218    RETURNING_END = True
 219
 220    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 221    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 222
 223    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 224    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 225
 226    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 227    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 228
 229    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 230    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 231
 232    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 233    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 234
 235    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 236    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 237    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 238    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 239
 240    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 241    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 242
 243    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 244    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 245
 246    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 247    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 248
 249    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 250    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 251
 252    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 253    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 254
 255    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 256    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 257
 258    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 259    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 260
 261    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 262    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 263
 264    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 265    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 266
 267    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 268    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 269
 270    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 271    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 272
 273    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 274    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 275
 276    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 277    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 278
 279    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 280    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 281
 282    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 283    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 284
 285    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 286    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 287
 288    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 289    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 290
 291    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 292    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 293
 294    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 295    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 296
 297    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 298    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 299
 300    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 301    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 302
 303    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 304    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 305
 306    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 307    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 308
 309    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 310    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 311
 312    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 313    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 314
 315    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 316    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 317    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 318
 319    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 320    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 321
 322    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 323    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 324
 325    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 326    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 327
 328    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 329    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 330
 331    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 332    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 333
 334    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 335    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 336
 337    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 338        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 339        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 340        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 341        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 342        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 343        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 344        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 345        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 346        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 347    }
 348
 349    STAR_MAPPING = {
 350        "except": "EXCEPT",
 351        "replace": "REPLACE",
 352    }
 353
 354    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 355        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 356        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 357        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 358        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 359        "DAYS": "DAY",
 360        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 361        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 362        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 363        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 364    }
 365
 366    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 367        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 368        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 369        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 370        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 371        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 372            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 373            if e.args.get("windows")
 374            else ""
 375        ),
 376    }
 377
 378    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 379
 380    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 381
 382    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 383    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 384
 385    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 386        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 387        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 388        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 389        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 390        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 391        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 392        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 393        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 394        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 395        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 396        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 397        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 398        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 399        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 400        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 401        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 402        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 403        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 404        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 405        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 406        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 407        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 408        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 409        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 410        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 411        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 412        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 413        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 414        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 415        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 416        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 417        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 418        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 419        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 420        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 421        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 422        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 423        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 424        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 425        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 426        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 427        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 428        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 429        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 430        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 431        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 433        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 444        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 446        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 447        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 450        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 452        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 454        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 457        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 459        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 460        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 461        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 462    }
 463
 464    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 465    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 466
 467    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 468    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 469        exp.Create,
 470        exp.Delete,
 471        exp.Drop,
 472        exp.From,
 473        exp.Insert,
 474        exp.Join,
 475        exp.Select,
 476        exp.Union,
 477        exp.Update,
 478        exp.Where,
 479        exp.With,
 480    )
 481
 482    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 483    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 484        exp.Binary,
 485        exp.Union,
 486    )
 487
 488    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 489    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 490        exp.Column,
 491        exp.Literal,
 492        exp.Neg,
 493        exp.Paren,
 494    )
 495
 496    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 497        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 498        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 499        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 500        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 501    }
 502
 503    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 504    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 505
 506    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 507
 508    __slots__ = (
 509        "pretty",
 510        "identify",
 511        "normalize",
 512        "pad",
 513        "_indent",
 514        "normalize_functions",
 515        "unsupported_level",
 516        "max_unsupported",
 517        "leading_comma",
 518        "max_text_width",
 519        "comments",
 520        "dialect",
 521        "unsupported_messages",
 522        "_escaped_quote_end",
 523        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 524    )
 525
 526    def __init__(
 527        self,
 528        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 529        identify: str | bool = False,
 530        normalize: bool = False,
 531        pad: int = 2,
 532        indent: int = 2,
 533        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 534        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 535        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 536        leading_comma: bool = False,
 537        max_text_width: int = 80,
 538        comments: bool = True,
 539        dialect: DialectType = None,
 540    ):
 541        import sqlglot
 542        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 543
 544        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 545        self.identify = identify
 546        self.normalize = normalize
 547        self.pad = pad
 548        self._indent = indent
 549        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 550        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 551        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 552        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 553        self.comments = comments
 554        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 555
 556        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 557        self.normalize_functions = (
 558            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 559        )
 560
 561        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 562        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 563            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 564        )
 565        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 566            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 567        )
 568
 569    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 570        """
 571        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 572
 573        Args:
 574            expression: The syntax tree.
 575            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 576                it is safer to copy.
 577
 578        Returns:
 579            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 580        """
 581        if copy:
 582            expression = expression.copy()
 583
 584        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 585
 586        self.unsupported_messages = []
 587        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 588
 589        if self.pretty:
 590            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 591
 592        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 593            return sql
 594
 595        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 596            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 597                logger.warning(msg)
 598        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 599            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 600
 601        return sql
 602
 603    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 604        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 605        if (
 606            not expression.parent
 607            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 608            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 609        ):
 610            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 611
 612            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 613
 614        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 615            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 616
 617            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 618
 619        return expression
 620
 621    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 622        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 623            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 624        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 625
 626    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 627        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 628
 629    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 630        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 631
 632    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 633        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 634        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 635        return comment
 636
 637    def maybe_comment(
 638        self,
 639        sql: str,
 640        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 641        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 642    ) -> str:
 643        comments = (
 644            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 645            if self.comments
 646            else None
 647        )
 648
 649        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 650            return sql
 651
 652        comments_sql = " ".join(
 653            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 654        )
 655
 656        if not comments_sql:
 657            return sql
 658
 659        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 660            return (
 661                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 662                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 663                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 664            )
 665
 666        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 667
 668    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 669        this_sql = self.indent(
 670            (
 671                self.sql(expression)
 672                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 673                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 674            ),
 675            level=1,
 676            pad=0,
 677        )
 678        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 679
 680    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 681        original = self.identify
 682        self.identify = False
 683        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 684        self.identify = original
 685        return result
 686
 687    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 688        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 689            return name.upper()
 690        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 691            return name.lower()
 692        return name
 693
 694    def indent(
 695        self,
 696        sql: str,
 697        level: int = 0,
 698        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 699        skip_first: bool = False,
 700        skip_last: bool = False,
 701    ) -> str:
 702        if not self.pretty:
 703            return sql
 704
 705        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 706        lines = sql.split("\n")
 707
 708        return "\n".join(
 709            (
 710                line
 711                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 712                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 713            )
 714            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 715        )
 716
 717    def sql(
 718        self,
 719        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 720        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 721        comment: bool = True,
 722    ) -> str:
 723        if not expression:
 724            return ""
 725
 726        if isinstance(expression, str):
 727            return expression
 728
 729        if key:
 730            value = expression.args.get(key)
 731            if value:
 732                return self.sql(value)
 733            return ""
 734
 735        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 736
 737        if callable(transform):
 738            sql = transform(self, expression)
 739        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 740            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 741
 742            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 743                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 744            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 745                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 746            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 747                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 748            else:
 749                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 750        else:
 751            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 752
 753        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 754
 755    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 756        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 757        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 758        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 759
 760    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 761        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 762        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 763        options = expression.args.get("options")
 764        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 765        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 766        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 767        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 768        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 769
 770    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 771        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 772            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 773        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 774        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 775
 776    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 777        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 778
 779        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 780            join_mark = ""
 781            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 782
 783        column = ".".join(
 784            self.sql(part)
 785            for part in (
 786                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 787                expression.args.get("db"),
 788                expression.args.get("table"),
 789                expression.args.get("this"),
 790            )
 791            if part
 792        )
 793
 794        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 795
 796    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 797        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 798        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 799        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 800        return f"{position}{this}"
 801
 802    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 803        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 804        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 805        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 806        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 807        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 808        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 809        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 810        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 811
 812        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 813            kind = ""
 814
 815        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 816
 817    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 818        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 819        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 820        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 821
 822    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 823        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 824        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 825            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 826        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 827            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 828        else:
 829            persisted = ""
 830        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 831
 832    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 833        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 834
 835    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 836        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 837            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 838        else:
 839            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 840
 841        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 842
 843    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 844        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 845    ) -> str:
 846        this = ""
 847        if expression.this is not None:
 848            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 849            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 850
 851        start = expression.args.get("start")
 852        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 853        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 854        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 855        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 856        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 857        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 858        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 859        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 860        cycle_sql = ""
 861
 862        if cycle is not None:
 863            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 864            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 865
 866        sequence_opts = ""
 867        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 868            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 869            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 870
 871        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 872        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 873
 874        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 875
 876    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 877        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 878    ) -> str:
 879        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 880        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 881        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 882
 883    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 884        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 885    ) -> str:
 886        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 887
 888    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 889        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 890
 891    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 892        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 893
 894    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 895        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 896        if desc is not None:
 897            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 898        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 899
 900    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 902        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 903        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 904        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 905        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 906        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 907        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 908
 909    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 910        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 911
 912    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 913        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 914        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 915        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 916
 917        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 918
 919        properties_sql = ""
 920        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 921            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 922        ):
 923            properties_sql = self.sql(
 924                exp.Properties(
 925                    expressions=[
 926                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 927                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 928                    ]
 929                )
 930            )
 931
 932        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 933        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 934
 935        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 936        if expression_sql:
 937            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 938
 939            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 940                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 941                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 942                        exp.Properties(
 943                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 944                        ),
 945                        wrapped=False,
 946                    )
 947                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 948                else:
 949                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 950
 951        postindex_props_sql = ""
 952        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 953            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 954                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 955                wrapped=False,
 956                prefix=" ",
 957            )
 958
 959        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 960        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 961        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 962
 963        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 964        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 965
 966        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 967        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 968            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 969                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 970                sep=" ",
 971                prefix=" ",
 972                wrapped=False,
 973            )
 974
 975        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 976
 977        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 978        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 979            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 980                exp.Properties(
 981                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 982                ),
 983                sep=" ",
 984                prefix=" ",
 985                wrapped=False,
 986            )
 987
 988        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 989        no_schema_binding = (
 990            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 991        )
 992
 993        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 994        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 995
 996        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 997        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 998
 999    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1000        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1001        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1002        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1003        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1004        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1005        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1006        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1007        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1008        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1009        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1010
1011        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1012        if cache is None:
1013            cache_str = ""
1014        elif cache is True:
1015            cache_str = " CACHE"
1016        else:
1017            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1018
1019        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1020        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1021
1022        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1023
1024    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1025        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1026        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1027        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1028        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1029
1030    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1031        style = expression.args.get("style")
1032        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1033        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1034
1035    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1036        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1037        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1038
1039    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1040        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1041        if with_:
1042            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1043        return sql
1044
1045    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1046        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1047        recursive = (
1048            "RECURSIVE "
1049            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1050            else ""
1051        )
1052
1053        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1054
1055    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1056        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1057
1058        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1059        if materialized is False:
1060            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1061        elif materialized:
1062            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1063
1064        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1065
1066    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1067        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1068        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1069        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1070
1071        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1072            columns = ""
1073            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1074
1075        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1076            alias = "_t"
1077
1078        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1079
1080    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1081        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1082        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1083            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1084        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1085
1086    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1087        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1088        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1089            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1090        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1091
1092    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1093        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1094        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1095            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1096        return this
1097
1098    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1099        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1100        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1101
1102        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1103            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1104            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1105
1106        if escape:
1107            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1108        else:
1109            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1110
1111        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1112        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1113
1114    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1115        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1116        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1117
1118    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1119        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1120        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1121        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1122        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1123
1124    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1125        type_value = expression.this
1126
1127        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1128            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1129        else:
1130            type_sql = (
1131                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1132                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1133                else type_value
1134            )
1135
1136        nested = ""
1137        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1138        values = ""
1139
1140        if interior:
1141            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1142                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1143                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1144                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1145                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1146                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1147            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1148                nested = f" {interior}"
1149            else:
1150                nested = f"({interior})"
1151
1152        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1153        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1154            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1155            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1156        ):
1157            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1158
1159        return type_sql
1160
1161    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1162        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1163        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1164        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1165        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1166
1167    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1168        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1169        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1170        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1171        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1172        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1173        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1174        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1175        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1176        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1177        if self.RETURNING_END:
1178            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1179        else:
1180            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1181        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1182
1183    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1184        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1185        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1186        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1187        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1188        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1189        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1190        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1191        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1192        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1193        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1194        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1195
1196    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1197        return self.set_operations(expression)
1198
1199    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1200        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1201
1202    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1203        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1204        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1205        count = expression.args.get("count")
1206        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1207        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1208            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1209        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1210        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1211
1212    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1213        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1214            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1215            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1216            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1217
1218        agg = expression.this
1219        agg_arg = agg.this
1220        cond = expression.expression.this
1221        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1222        return self.sql(agg)
1223
1224    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1225        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1226            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1227            return ""
1228
1229        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1230
1231    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1232        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1233        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1234        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1235        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1236        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1237        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1238        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1239        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1240        if include:
1241            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1242        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1243        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1244        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1245        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1246
1247        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1248
1249    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1250        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1251        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1252        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1253        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1254        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1255        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1256        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1257
1258        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1259
1260        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1261        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1262
1263    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1264        text = expression.name
1265        lower = text.lower()
1266        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1267        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1268        if (
1269            expression.quoted
1270            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1271            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1272            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1273        ):
1274            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1275        return text
1276
1277    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1278        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1279        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1280        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1281        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1282        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1283
1284    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1285        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1286        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1287
1288    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1289        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1290
1291    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1292        root_properties = []
1293        with_properties = []
1294
1295        for p in expression.expressions:
1296            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1297            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1298                with_properties.append(p)
1299            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1300                root_properties.append(p)
1301
1302        return self.root_properties(
1303            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1304        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1305
1306    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1307        if properties.expressions:
1308            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1309        return ""
1310
1311    def properties(
1312        self,
1313        properties: exp.Properties,
1314        prefix: str = "",
1315        sep: str = ", ",
1316        suffix: str = "",
1317        wrapped: bool = True,
1318    ) -> str:
1319        if properties.expressions:
1320            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1321            if expressions:
1322                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1323                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1324        return ""
1325
1326    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1327        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1328
1329    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1330        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1331        for p in properties.expressions:
1332            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1333            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1334                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1335            else:
1336                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1337
1338        return properties_locs
1339
1340    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1341        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1342            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1343        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1344
1345    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1346        property_cls = expression.__class__
1347        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1348            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1349
1350        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1351        if not property_name:
1352            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1353
1354        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1355
1356    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1357        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1358            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1359            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1360
1361            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1362            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1363                like = f"({like})"
1364
1365            return like
1366
1367        if expression.expressions:
1368            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1369
1370        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1371        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1372
1373    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1374        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1375        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1376        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1377
1378    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1379        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1380        local = expression.args.get("local")
1381        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1382        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1383        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1384        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1385        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1386
1387    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1388        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1389        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1390        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1391
1392    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1393        if expression.args.get("default"):
1394            property = "DEFAULT"
1395        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1396            property = "ON"
1397        else:
1398            property = "OFF"
1399        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1400
1401    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1402        if expression.args.get("no"):
1403            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1404        if expression.args.get("default"):
1405            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1406
1407        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1408        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1409
1410    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1411        default = expression.args.get("default")
1412        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1413        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1414        if default or minimum or maximum:
1415            if default:
1416                prop = "DEFAULT"
1417            elif minimum:
1418                prop = "MINIMUM"
1419            else:
1420                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1421            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1422        units = expression.args.get("units")
1423        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1424        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1425
1426    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1427        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1428        always = expression.args.get("always")
1429        default = expression.args.get("default")
1430        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1431        never = expression.args.get("never")
1432
1433        if autotemp is not None:
1434            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1435        elif always:
1436            prop = "ALWAYS"
1437        elif default:
1438            prop = "DEFAULT"
1439        elif manual:
1440            prop = "MANUAL"
1441        elif never:
1442            prop = "NEVER"
1443        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1444
1445    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1446        no = expression.args.get("no")
1447        no = " NO" if no else ""
1448        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1449        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1450        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1451        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1452        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1453
1454    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1455        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1456            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1457        if expression.this:
1458            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1459            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1460            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1461
1462        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1463        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1464        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1465
1466    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1467        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1468
1469        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1470        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1471            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1472        else:
1473            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1474
1475        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1476
1477    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1478        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1479        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1480        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1481        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1482        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1483        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1484        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1485
1486    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1487        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1488        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1489        statistics_sql = ""
1490        if statistics is not None:
1491            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1492        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1493
1494    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1495        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1496
1497        if expression.this:
1498            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1499            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1500
1501            if expression.expression:
1502                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1503                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1504
1505            sql = f"{sql})"
1506
1507        return f"{sql})"
1508
1509    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1510        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1511        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1512
1513        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1514            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1515        else:
1516            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1517
1518        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1519        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1520        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1521        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1522        if is_function:
1523            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1524        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1525
1526        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1527        partition_sql = (
1528            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1529        )
1530        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1531        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1532        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1533        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1534        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1535        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1536        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1537
1538        if self.RETURNING_END:
1539            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1540        else:
1541            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1542
1543        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1544        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1545
1546    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1547        return self.set_operations(expression)
1548
1549    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1550        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1551
1552    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1553        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1554
1555    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1556        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1557        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1558        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1559        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1560        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1561
1562    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1563        return expression.name
1564
1565    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1566        return expression.name
1567
1568    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1569        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1570
1571        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1572        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1573
1574        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1575        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1576        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1577
1578        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1579        if expressions:
1580            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1581            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1582
1583        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1584
1585    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1586        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1587
1588    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1589        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1590        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1591        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1592        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1593        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1594        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1595        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1596        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1597        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1598        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1599        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1600        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1601        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1602
1603    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1604        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1605
1606    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1607        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1608        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1609        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1610        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1611
1612    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1613        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1614        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1615        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1616        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1617
1618    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1619        return ".".join(
1620            self.sql(part)
1621            for part in (
1622                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1623                expression.args.get("db"),
1624                expression.args.get("this"),
1625            )
1626            if part is not None
1627        )
1628
1629    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1630        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1631        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1632        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1633        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1634        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1635        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1636        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1637        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1638        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1639        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1640        joins = self.indent(
1641            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1642        )
1643        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1644
1645        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1646        if file_format:
1647            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1648            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1649            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1650
1651        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1652        if ordinality:
1653            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1654            alias = ""
1655
1656        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1657        if when:
1658            table = f"{table} {when}"
1659
1660        return f"{only}{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1661
1662    def tablesample_sql(
1663        self,
1664        expression: exp.TableSample,
1665        sep: str = " AS ",
1666        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1667    ) -> str:
1668        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1669            table = expression.this.copy()
1670            table.set("alias", None)
1671            this = self.sql(table)
1672            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1673        else:
1674            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1675            alias = ""
1676
1677        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1678        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1679        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1680        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1681        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1682        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1683        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1684        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1685        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1686
1687        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1688        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1689            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1690
1691        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1692        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1693            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1694
1695        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1696        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1697            expr = f"({expr})"
1698
1699        return (
1700            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1701        )
1702
1703    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1704        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1705
1706        if expression.this:
1707            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1708            if not expressions:
1709                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1710
1711            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1712            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1713            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1714            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1715            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1716
1717        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1718        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1719        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1720        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1721        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1722        if include_nulls is not None:
1723            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1724        else:
1725            nulls = ""
1726        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1727
1728    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1729        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1730        kind = expression.text("kind")
1731        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1732        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1733
1734    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1735        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1736
1737    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1738        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1739        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1740        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1741        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1742        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1743        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1744        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1745        if self.RETURNING_END:
1746            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1747        else:
1748            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1749        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1750        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1751
1752    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1753        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1754
1755        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1756        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1757            args = self.expressions(expression)
1758            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1759            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1760            values = (
1761                f"({values})"
1762                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1763                else values
1764            )
1765            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1766
1767        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1768        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1769        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1770
1771        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1772
1773        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1774            row = tup.expressions
1775
1776            if i == 0 and column_names:
1777                row = [
1778                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1779                ]
1780
1781            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1782
1783        if self.pretty:
1784            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1785            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1786            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1787            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1788            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1789
1790        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1791        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1792        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1793
1794    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1795        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1796
1797    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1798        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1799        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1800        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1801
1802    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1803        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1804
1805    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1806        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1807        if group_by_all is True:
1808            modifier = " ALL"
1809        elif group_by_all is False:
1810            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1811        else:
1812            modifier = ""
1813
1814        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1815
1816        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1817        grouping_sets = (
1818            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1819        )
1820
1821        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1822        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1823            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1824        else:
1825            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1826            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1827
1828        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1829        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1830            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1831        else:
1832            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1833            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1834
1835        groupings = csv(
1836            grouping_sets,
1837            cube_sql,
1838            rollup_sql,
1839            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1840            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1841        )
1842
1843        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1844            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1845
1846        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1847
1848    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1849        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1850        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1851
1852    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1853        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1854        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1855        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1856        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1857        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1858        return start + connect
1859
1860    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1861        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1862
1863    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1864        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1865            side = None
1866        else:
1867            side = expression.side
1868
1869        op_sql = " ".join(
1870            op
1871            for op in (
1872                expression.method,
1873                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1874                side,
1875                expression.kind,
1876                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1877            )
1878            if op
1879        )
1880        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1881        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1882        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1883        using = expression.args.get("using")
1884
1885        if not on_sql and using:
1886            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1887
1888        this = expression.this
1889        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1890
1891        if on_sql:
1892            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1893            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1894            if using:
1895                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1896            else:
1897                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1898        elif not op_sql:
1899            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1900                return f" {this_sql}"
1901
1902            return f", {this_sql}"
1903
1904        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1905        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1906
1907    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1908        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1909        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1910        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1911
1912    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1913        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1914
1915        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1916        if cross_apply is True:
1917            op = "INNER JOIN "
1918        elif cross_apply is False:
1919            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1920        else:
1921            op = ""
1922
1923        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1924
1925    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1926        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1927
1928        if expression.args.get("view"):
1929            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1930            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1931            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1932            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1933            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1934            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1935
1936        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1937        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1938        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1939
1940    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1941        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1942
1943        args = [
1944            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1945            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1946            if e
1947        ]
1948
1949        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1950        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1951        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1952        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1953
1954        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
1955
1956    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1957        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1958        value = expression.expression
1959        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1960        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1961        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1962        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
1963
1964    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1965        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1966        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1967        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1968        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1969        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1970        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1971        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1972        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1973
1974    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1975        expressions = (
1976            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1977        )
1978        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1979        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1980
1981    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1982        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1983
1984    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1985        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1986            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1987            return ""
1988
1989        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1990        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1991        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1992        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1993
1994        if wait is not None:
1995            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1996                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1997            else:
1998                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1999
2000        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2001
2002    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2003        text = expression.this or ""
2004        if expression.is_string:
2005            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2006        return text
2007
2008    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2009        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2010            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2011            text = "".join(
2012                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2013            )
2014
2015        if self.pretty:
2016            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
2017
2018        return text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
2019
2020    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2021        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2022        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2023        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2024        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2025        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2026        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2027        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2028        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2029        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2030        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2031        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2032
2033    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2034        return "NULL"
2035
2036    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2037        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2038
2039    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2040        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2041        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2042        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2043        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2044        interpolated_values = [
2045            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2046            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2047        ]
2048        interpolate = (
2049            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2050        )
2051        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2052
2053    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2054        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2055        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2056        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2057        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2058        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2059        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2060        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2061
2062    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2063        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2064
2065    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2066        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2067
2068    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2069        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2070
2071    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2072        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2073        asc = not desc
2074
2075        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2076        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2077        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2078        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2079        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2080
2081        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2082
2083        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2084        nulls_sort_change = ""
2085        if nulls_first and (
2086            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2087        ):
2088            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2089        elif (
2090            nulls_last
2091            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2092            and not nulls_are_last
2093        ):
2094            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2095
2096        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2097        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2098            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2099            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2100                self.unsupported(
2101                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2102                )
2103                nulls_sort_change = ""
2104            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2105                if expression.this.is_int:
2106                    self.unsupported(
2107                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2108                    )
2109                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2110                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2111                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2112                nulls_sort_change = ""
2113
2114        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2115        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2116
2117        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2118
2119    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2120        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2121        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2122
2123        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2124
2125        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2126
2127    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2128        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2129        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2130        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2131        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2132        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2133        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2134        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2135        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2136        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2137        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2138        definition_sqls = [
2139            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2140            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2141        ]
2142        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2143        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2144        body = "".join(
2145            (
2146                partition,
2147                order,
2148                measures,
2149                rows,
2150                after,
2151                pattern,
2152                define,
2153            )
2154        )
2155        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2156        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2157        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2158
2159    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2160        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2161
2162        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2163            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2164        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2165            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2166
2167        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2168        if options:
2169            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2170
2171        return csv(
2172            *sqls,
2173            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2174            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2175            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2176            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2177            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2178            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2179            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2180            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2181            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2182            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2183            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2184            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2185            options,
2186            sep="",
2187        )
2188
2189    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2190        return ""
2191
2192    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2193        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2194    ) -> t.List[str]:
2195        return [
2196            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2197            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2198        ]
2199
2200    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2201        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2202        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2203        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2204
2205    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2206        into = expression.args.get("into")
2207        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2208            into.pop()
2209
2210        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2211        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2212        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2213        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2214
2215        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2216        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2217            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2218            limit.pop()
2219        else:
2220            top = ""
2221
2222        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2223
2224        if kind:
2225            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2226                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2227            else:
2228                if kind == "STRUCT":
2229                    expressions = self.expressions(
2230                        sqls=[
2231                            self.sql(
2232                                exp.Struct(
2233                                    expressions=[
2234                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2235                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2236                                        else e
2237                                        for e in expression.expressions
2238                                    ]
2239                                )
2240                            )
2241                        ]
2242                    )
2243                kind = ""
2244
2245        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2246        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2247        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2248        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2249        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2250            expression,
2251            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2252            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2253            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2254        )
2255
2256        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2257
2258        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2259            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2260                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2261            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2262                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2263            else:
2264                table_kind = ""
2265            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2266
2267        return sql
2268
2269    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2270        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2271        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2272        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2273
2274    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2275        if expression.expressions:
2276            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2277        return ""
2278
2279    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2280        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2281        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2282        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2283        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2284        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2285
2286    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2287        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2288        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2289
2290    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2291        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2292        kind = expression.text("kind")
2293        if kind:
2294            kind = f"{kind}."
2295        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2296
2297    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2298        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2299
2300    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2301        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2302        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2303
2304        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2305        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2306
2307        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2308        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2309
2310    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2311        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2312        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2313
2314    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2315        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2316        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2317
2318        while stack:
2319            node = stack.pop()
2320
2321            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2322                stack.append(node.expression)
2323                stack.append(
2324                    self.maybe_comment(
2325                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2326                        expression=node.this,
2327                        comments=node.comments,
2328                    )
2329                )
2330                stack.append(node.this)
2331            else:
2332                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2333
2334        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2335        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2336        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2337
2338    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2339        return self.set_operations(expression)
2340
2341    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2342        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2343        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2344        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2345        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2346
2347    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2348        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2349
2350        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2351        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2352
2353        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2354            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2355                alias.append("columns", offset)
2356
2357        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2358            columns = alias.columns
2359            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2360        else:
2361            alias = self.sql(alias)
2362
2363        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2364        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2365            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2366        else:
2367            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2368                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2369            elif offset:
2370                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2371            else:
2372                suffix = alias
2373
2374        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2375
2376    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2377        return ""
2378
2379    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2380        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2381        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2382
2383    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2384        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2385        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2386        order = expression.args.get("order")
2387        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2388        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2389        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2390        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2391
2392        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2393
2394        first = expression.args.get("first")
2395        if first is None:
2396            first = ""
2397        else:
2398            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2399
2400        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2401            return f"{this} {alias}"
2402
2403        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2404        return f"{this} ({args})"
2405
2406    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2407        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2408        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2409
2410    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2411        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2412        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2413        end = (
2414            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2415            or "CURRENT ROW"
2416        )
2417        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2418
2419    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2420        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2421        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2422        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2423
2424    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2425        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2426        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2427        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2428        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2429
2430    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2431        return apply_index_offset(
2432            expression.this,
2433            expression.expressions,
2434            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2435        )
2436
2437    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2438        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2439        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2440        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2441
2442    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2443        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2444
2445    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2446        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2447        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2448            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2449                this = self.wrap(this)
2450            return f"ANY{this}"
2451        return f"ANY {this}"
2452
2453    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2454        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2455
2456    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2457        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2458        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2459
2460        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2461            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2462            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2463
2464        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2465
2466        if default:
2467            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2468
2469        statements.append("END")
2470
2471        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2472            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2473
2474        return " ".join(statements)
2475
2476    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2477        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2478        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2479        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2480
2481    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2482        order = expression.args.get("order")
2483        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2484        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2485
2486    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2487        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2488        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2489        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2490
2491    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2492        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2493
2494        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2495            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2496        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2497            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2498        else:
2499            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2500
2501    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2502        args = expression.expressions
2503        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2504            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2505
2506        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2507            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2508
2509        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2510            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2511
2512        return args
2513
2514    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2515        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2516
2517        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2518        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2519            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2520
2521        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2522
2523    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2524        return self.func(
2525            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2526        )
2527
2528    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2529        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2530        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2531
2532    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2533        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2534        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2535        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2536        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2537        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2538        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2539        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2540        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2541
2542    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2543        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2544        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2545        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2546        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2547
2548    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2549        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2550
2551    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2552        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2553        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2554        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2555
2556    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2557        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2558
2559    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2560        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2561        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2562
2563    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2564        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2565            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2566            if not callable(transform):
2567                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2568                return ""
2569
2570            return transform(self, expression)
2571
2572        if isinstance(expression, int):
2573            return str(expression)
2574
2575        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2576            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2577            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2578        else:
2579            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2580            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2581
2582        return escaped
2583
2584    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2585        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2586
2587    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2588        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2589        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2590
2591        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2592        if unique_keys is not None:
2593            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2594        else:
2595            unique_keys = ""
2596
2597        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2598        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2599        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2600        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2601
2602        return self.func(
2603            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2604            *expression.expressions,
2605            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2606        )
2607
2608    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2609        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2610
2611    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2612        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2613        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2614        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2615        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2616        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2617        return self.func(
2618            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2619        )
2620
2621    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2622        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2623        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2624        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2625        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2626        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2627        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2628        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2629        return self.func(
2630            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2631            this,
2632            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2633        )
2634
2635    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2636        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2637        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2638        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2639
2640        if nested_schema:
2641            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2642
2643        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2644        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2645        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2646        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2647
2648    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2649        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2650
2651    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2652        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2653        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2654        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2655        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2656        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2657        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2658        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2659        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2660        return self.func(
2661            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2662        )
2663
2664    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2665        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2666        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2667        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2668        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2669        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2670        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2671
2672    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2673        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2674        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2675        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2676        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2677        with_ = (
2678            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2679            if expressions
2680            else ""
2681        )
2682        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2683
2684    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2685        query = expression.args.get("query")
2686        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2687        field = expression.args.get("field")
2688        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2689
2690        if query:
2691            in_sql = self.wrap(self.sql(query))
2692        elif unnest:
2693            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2694        elif field:
2695            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2696        else:
2697            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2698
2699        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2700
2701    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2702        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2703
2704    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2705        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2706        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2707            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2708        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2709
2710        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2711            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2712            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2713
2714        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2715        if this:
2716            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2717            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2718
2719        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2720
2721    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2722        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2723
2724    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2725        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2726        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2727        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2728        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2729        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2730        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2731
2732    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2733        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2734
2735    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2736        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2737        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2738
2739    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2740        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2741        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2742        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2743        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2744
2745    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2746        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2747
2748    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2749        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2750        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2751        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2752
2753    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2754        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2755        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2756
2757        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2758            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2759        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2760            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2761
2762        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2763
2764    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2765        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2766
2767    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2768        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2769        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2770        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2771
2772    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2773        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2774        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2775        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2776
2777    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2778        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2779        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2780        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2781
2782    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2783        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2784
2785    def and_sql(
2786        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2787    ) -> str:
2788        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2789
2790    def or_sql(
2791        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2792    ) -> str:
2793        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2794
2795    def xor_sql(
2796        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2797    ) -> str:
2798        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2799
2800    def connector_sql(
2801        self,
2802        expression: exp.Connector,
2803        op: str,
2804        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2805    ) -> str:
2806        if stack is not None:
2807            if expression.expressions:
2808                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2809            else:
2810                stack.append(expression.right)
2811                if expression.comments:
2812                    for comment in expression.comments:
2813                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2814                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2815            return op
2816
2817        stack = [expression]
2818        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2819        ops = set()
2820
2821        while stack:
2822            node = stack.pop()
2823            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2824                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2825            else:
2826                sql = self.sql(node)
2827                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2828                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2829                else:
2830                    sqls.append(sql)
2831
2832        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2833        return sep.join(sqls)
2834
2835    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2836        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2837
2838    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2839        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2840
2841    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2842        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2843
2844    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2845        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2846
2847    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2848        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2849
2850    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2851        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2852
2853    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2854        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2855        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2856        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2857        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2858        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2859        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2860        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2861
2862    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2863        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2864        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2865
2866    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2867        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2868
2869    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2870        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2871            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2872        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2873
2874    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2875        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2876
2877    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2878        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2879        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2880        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2881        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2882        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2883        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2884
2885    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2886        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2887        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2888        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2889        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2890        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2891        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2892        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2893        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2894        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2895
2896    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2897        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2898        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2899        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2900        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2901
2902        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2903            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2904
2905        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2906
2907    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2908        return "BEGIN"
2909
2910    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2911        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2912        if chain is not None:
2913            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2914
2915        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2916
2917    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2918        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2919        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2920        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2921
2922    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2923        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2924
2925        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2926        if dtype:
2927            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2928            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2929            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2930            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2931            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2932
2933        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2934        if default:
2935            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2936
2937        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2938        if comment:
2939            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2940
2941        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2942            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2943
2944        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2945
2946    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2947        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2948            # Remove db from tables
2949            expression = expression.transform(
2950                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2951            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2952        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2953        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2954
2955    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2956        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2957        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2958        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2959        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
2960
2961    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2962        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2963
2964        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2965            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2966        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2967            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2968        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2969            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2970        else:
2971            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2972
2973        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2974        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2975        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2976        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
2977        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
2978
2979    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2980        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2981            return self.expressions(
2982                expression,
2983                key="actions",
2984                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2985            )
2986        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2987
2988    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2989        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2990        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2991        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2992
2993    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2994        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
2995
2996    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2997        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2998
2999        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3000            case = exp.case()
3001            for arg in expression.expressions:
3002                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3003            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3004
3005        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3006
3007        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3008        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3009        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3010
3011    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3012        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3013
3014    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3015        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3016
3017    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3018        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3019        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3020        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3021        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3022
3023    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3024        return self.sql(
3025            exp.Cast(
3026                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3027                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3028            )
3029        )
3030
3031    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3032        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3033            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
3034        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3035
3036    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3037        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3038
3039        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3040            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3041
3042        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3043            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3044                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3045
3046        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3047            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3048                return self.sql(
3049                    exp.cast(
3050                        l / r,
3051                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3052                    )
3053                )
3054
3055        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3056
3057    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3058        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3059
3060    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3061        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3062
3063    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3064        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3065
3066    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3067        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3068
3069    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3070        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3071
3072    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3073        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3074
3075    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3076        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3077
3078    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3079        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3080
3081    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3082        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3083
3084    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3085        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3086
3087    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3088        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3089
3090    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3091        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3092            return self.sql(
3093                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3094            )
3095        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3096
3097    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3098        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3099
3100    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3101        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3102
3103    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3104        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3105
3106    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3107        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3108
3109    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3110        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3111
3112    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3113        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3114
3115    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3116        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3117
3118    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3119        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3120
3121    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3122        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3123
3124    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3125        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3126
3127    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3128        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3129
3130    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3131        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3132
3133    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3134        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3135
3136    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3137        this = expression.this
3138        expr = expression.expression
3139
3140        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3141            this, expr = expr, this
3142        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3143            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3144                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3145
3146            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3147
3148        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3149
3150    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3151        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3152        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3153        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3154        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3155        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3156
3157    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3158        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3159        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3160
3161    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3162        args = []
3163
3164        for key in expression.arg_types:
3165            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3166
3167            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3168                for value in arg_value:
3169                    args.append(value)
3170            elif arg_value is not None:
3171                args.append(arg_value)
3172
3173        if self.normalize_functions:
3174            name = expression.sql_name()
3175        else:
3176            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3177
3178        return self.func(name, *args)
3179
3180    def func(
3181        self,
3182        name: str,
3183        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3184        prefix: str = "(",
3185        suffix: str = ")",
3186    ) -> str:
3187        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3188
3189    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3190        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3191        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
3192            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3193        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3194
3195    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
3196        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
3197
3198    def format_time(
3199        self,
3200        expression: exp.Expression,
3201        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3202        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3203    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3204        return format_time(
3205            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3206            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3207            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3208        )
3209
3210    def expressions(
3211        self,
3212        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3213        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3214        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3215        flat: bool = False,
3216        indent: bool = True,
3217        skip_first: bool = False,
3218        sep: str = ", ",
3219        prefix: str = "",
3220    ) -> str:
3221        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3222
3223        if not expressions:
3224            return ""
3225
3226        if flat:
3227            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3228
3229        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3230
3231        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3232        if self.pretty:
3233            if self.leading_comma:
3234                pad = " " * len(sep)
3235            else:
3236                stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3237
3238        result_sqls = []
3239        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3240            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3241            if not sql:
3242                continue
3243
3244            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3245
3246            if self.pretty:
3247                if self.leading_comma:
3248                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3249                else:
3250                    result_sqls.append(
3251                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3252                    )
3253            else:
3254                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3255
3256        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
3257        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
3258
3259    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3260        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3261        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3262        if flat:
3263            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3264        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3265
3266    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3267        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3268        if not property_name:
3269            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3270        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3271
3272    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3273        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3274
3275    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3276        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3277
3278    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3279        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3280        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3281        expressions = (
3282            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3283        )
3284        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3285
3286    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3287        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3288        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3289        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3290
3291    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3292        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3293
3294    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3295        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3296        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3297        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3298        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3299
3300        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3301        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3302            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3303            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3304                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3305        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3306            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3307                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3308            else:
3309                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3310        else:
3311            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3312        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3313
3314    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3315        table = expression.this
3316        table_alias = ""
3317
3318        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3319        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3320            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3321            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3322
3323        this = self.sql(table)
3324        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3325        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3326        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3327
3328        return self.prepend_ctes(
3329            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3330        )
3331
3332    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3333        if expression.args.get("format"):
3334            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3335
3336        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
3337
3338    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3339        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3340            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3341            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3342
3343        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3344        if not fmt:
3345            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3346            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3347
3348        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3349
3350    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3351        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3352        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3353        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3354        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3355        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3356
3357    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3358        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3359        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3360        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3361        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3362
3363    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3364        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3365
3366    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3367        return ""
3368
3369    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3370        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3371        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3372        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3373        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3374        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3375
3376    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3377        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3378        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3379
3380        if having:
3381            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3382
3383        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3384
3385    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3386        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3387        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3388        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3389        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3390        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3391        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3392        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3393        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3394        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3395        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3396        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3397        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3398        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3399
3400    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3401        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3402        if key_block_size:
3403            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3404
3405        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3406        if using:
3407            return f"USING {using}"
3408
3409        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3410        if parser:
3411            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3412
3413        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3414        if comment:
3415            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3416
3417        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3418        if visible is not None:
3419            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3420
3421        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3422        if engine_attr:
3423            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3424
3425        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3426        if secondary_engine_attr:
3427            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3428
3429        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3430        return ""
3431
3432    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3433        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3434        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3435
3436    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3437        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3438        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3439        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3440        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3441        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3442        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3443        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3444        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3445        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3446        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3447        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3448
3449    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3450        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3451            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3452
3453        case = exp.Case().when(
3454            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3455            expression.args["true"],
3456            copy=False,
3457        )
3458        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3459        if else_cond:
3460            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3461
3462        return self.sql(case)
3463
3464    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3465        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3466        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3467        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3468        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3469        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3470        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3471
3472    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3473        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3474
3475    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3476        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3477
3478    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3479        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3480        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3481        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3482        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3483        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3484        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3485
3486    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3487        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3488        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3489        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3490
3491    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3492        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3493        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3494        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3495
3496    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3497        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3498
3499    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3500        arg = expression.this
3501        if not arg.type:
3502            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3503
3504            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3505
3506        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3507            return self.sql(arg)
3508
3509        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3510        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3511
3512    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3513        this = expression.this
3514        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3515            return self.sql(this)
3516
3517        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
3518
3519    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3520        this = expression.this
3521        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3522            return self.sql(this)
3523
3524        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "timestamp"))
3525
3526    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3527        this = expression.this
3528        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3529
3530        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3531            return self.sql(
3532                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3533            )
3534
3535        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3536            return self.sql(this)
3537
3538        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
3539
3540    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3541        return self.sql(
3542            exp.func(
3543                "DATEDIFF",
3544                expression.this,
3545                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3546                "day",
3547            )
3548        )
3549
3550    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3551        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3552            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3553
3554        unit = expression.text("unit")
3555        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3556            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3557
3558        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3559
3560    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3561        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3562
3563        return self.func(
3564            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3565        )
3566
3567    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3568        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3569            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3570            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3571            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3572            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3573
3574        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3575
3576        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3577        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3578            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3579
3580        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3581
3582    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3583        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3584        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3585
3586    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3587        expression.set(
3588            "expressions",
3589            [
3590                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3591                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3592                else e
3593                for e in expression.expressions
3594            ],
3595        )
3596
3597        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3598
3599    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3600        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3601        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3602
3603        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3604
3605    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3606        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3607        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3608
3609        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3610
3611        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3612        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3613
3614        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3615        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3616
3617        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3618        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3619
3620        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3621        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3622
3623        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3624
3625    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3626    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3627    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3628        to = expression.this
3629        value = expression.expression
3630        style = expression.args.get("style")
3631        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3632        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3633
3634        if not to or not value:
3635            return ""
3636
3637        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3638        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3639            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3640
3641        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3642        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3643
3644        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3645        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3646            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3647
3648            style_value = style.name
3649            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3650            if not converted_style:
3651                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3652
3653            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3654
3655            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3656                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3657            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3658                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3659            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3660                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3661            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3662                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3663
3664        if not transformed:
3665            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3666
3667        return self.sql(transformed)
3668
3669    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3670        this = expression.this
3671        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3672            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3673            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3674
3675        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3676            return f".{this}"
3677
3678        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3679        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3680
3681    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3682        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3683        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3684
3685    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3686        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3687            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3688
3689            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3690
3691        return expression
3692
3693    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3694        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3695            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3696            mods = sorted(
3697                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3698                key=lambda x: 0
3699                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3700                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3701            )
3702
3703            if mods:
3704                mod = mods[0]
3705                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3706                this.meta["inline"] = True
3707                mod.this.replace(this)
3708                return self.sql(expression.this)
3709
3710            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3711
3712            if agg_func:
3713                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3714
3715        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  38    """
  39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  40
  41    Args:
  42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  43            Default: False.
  44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  46            True or 'always': Always quote.
  47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  49            Default: False.
  50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  51            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  54            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  55            Default: 2.
  56        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  57            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  58            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  59            False: Disables function name normalization.
  60        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  61            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  62        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  63            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  64            Default: 3
  65        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  66            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  67            Default: False
  68        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  69            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  70            line length.
  71            Default: 80
  72        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  73            Default: True
  74    """
  75
  76    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  77        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  78        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  81        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  82        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  83        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  84        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  86        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  87        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  90        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  94        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  95        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  96        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  97        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  98        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
  99        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 100        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 101        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 102        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 104        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 105        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 106            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 107        ),
 108        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 109            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 110        ),
 111        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 112        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 113        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 114        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 115        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 116        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 117        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 118        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 119        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 120        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 121        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 126        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 128        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 130        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 131        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 132        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 134        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 135        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 136        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 137        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 138        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 139        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 140        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 141        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 142        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 143        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 144        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 145        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 146        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 147        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 149        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 150        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 151    }
 152
 153    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 154    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 155    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 156
 157    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 158    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 159    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 160
 161    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 162    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 163
 164    # Always do union distinct or union all
 165    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 166
 167    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 168    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 169
 170    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 171    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 172
 173    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 174    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 175
 176    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 177    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 178
 179    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 180    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 181
 182    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 183    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 184
 185    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 186    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 187
 188    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 189    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 190
 191    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 192    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 193
 194    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 195    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 196
 197    # Whether join hints should be generated
 198    JOIN_HINTS = True
 199
 200    # Whether table hints should be generated
 201    TABLE_HINTS = True
 202
 203    # Whether query hints should be generated
 204    QUERY_HINTS = True
 205
 206    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 207    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 208
 209    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 210    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 211
 212    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 213    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 214
 215    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 216    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 217
 218    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 219    RETURNING_END = True
 220
 221    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 222    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 223
 224    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 225    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 226
 227    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 228    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 229
 230    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 231    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 232
 233    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 234    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 235
 236    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 237    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 238    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 239    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 240
 241    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 242    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 243
 244    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 245    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 246
 247    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 248    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 249
 250    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 251    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 252
 253    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 254    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 255
 256    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 257    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 258
 259    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 260    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 261
 262    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 263    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 264
 265    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 266    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 267
 268    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 269    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 270
 271    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 272    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 273
 274    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 275    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 276
 277    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 278    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 279
 280    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 281    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 282
 283    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 284    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 285
 286    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 287    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 288
 289    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 290    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 291
 292    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 293    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 294
 295    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 296    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 297
 298    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 299    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 300
 301    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 302    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 303
 304    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 305    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 306
 307    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 308    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 309
 310    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 311    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 312
 313    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 314    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 315
 316    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 317    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 318    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 319
 320    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 321    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 322
 323    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 324    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 325
 326    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 327    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 328
 329    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 330    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 331
 332    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 333    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 334
 335    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 336    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 337
 338    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 339        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 340        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 341        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 342        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 343        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 344        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 345        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 346        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 347        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 348    }
 349
 350    STAR_MAPPING = {
 351        "except": "EXCEPT",
 352        "replace": "REPLACE",
 353    }
 354
 355    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 356        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 357        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 358        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 359        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 360        "DAYS": "DAY",
 361        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 362        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 363        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 364        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 365    }
 366
 367    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 368        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 369        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 370        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 371        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 372        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 373            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 374            if e.args.get("windows")
 375            else ""
 376        ),
 377    }
 378
 379    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 380
 381    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 382
 383    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 384    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 385
 386    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 387        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 388        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 389        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 390        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 391        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 392        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 393        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 394        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 395        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 396        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 397        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 398        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 399        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 400        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 401        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 402        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 403        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 404        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 405        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 406        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 407        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 408        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 409        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 410        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 411        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 412        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 413        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 414        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 415        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 416        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 417        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 418        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 419        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 420        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 421        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 422        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 423        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 424        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 425        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 426        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 427        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 428        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 429        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 430        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 431        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 434        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 445        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 447        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 448        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 451        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 453        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 455        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 458        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 460        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 461        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 462        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 463    }
 464
 465    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 466    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 467
 468    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 469    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 470        exp.Create,
 471        exp.Delete,
 472        exp.Drop,
 473        exp.From,
 474        exp.Insert,
 475        exp.Join,
 476        exp.Select,
 477        exp.Union,
 478        exp.Update,
 479        exp.Where,
 480        exp.With,
 481    )
 482
 483    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 484    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 485        exp.Binary,
 486        exp.Union,
 487    )
 488
 489    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 490    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 491        exp.Column,
 492        exp.Literal,
 493        exp.Neg,
 494        exp.Paren,
 495    )
 496
 497    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 498        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 499        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 500        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 501        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 502    }
 503
 504    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 505    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 506
 507    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 508
 509    __slots__ = (
 510        "pretty",
 511        "identify",
 512        "normalize",
 513        "pad",
 514        "_indent",
 515        "normalize_functions",
 516        "unsupported_level",
 517        "max_unsupported",
 518        "leading_comma",
 519        "max_text_width",
 520        "comments",
 521        "dialect",
 522        "unsupported_messages",
 523        "_escaped_quote_end",
 524        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 525    )
 526
 527    def __init__(
 528        self,
 529        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 530        identify: str | bool = False,
 531        normalize: bool = False,
 532        pad: int = 2,
 533        indent: int = 2,
 534        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 535        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 536        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 537        leading_comma: bool = False,
 538        max_text_width: int = 80,
 539        comments: bool = True,
 540        dialect: DialectType = None,
 541    ):
 542        import sqlglot
 543        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 544
 545        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 546        self.identify = identify
 547        self.normalize = normalize
 548        self.pad = pad
 549        self._indent = indent
 550        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 551        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 552        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 553        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 554        self.comments = comments
 555        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 556
 557        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 558        self.normalize_functions = (
 559            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 560        )
 561
 562        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 563        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 564            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 565        )
 566        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 567            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 568        )
 569
 570    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 571        """
 572        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 573
 574        Args:
 575            expression: The syntax tree.
 576            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 577                it is safer to copy.
 578
 579        Returns:
 580            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 581        """
 582        if copy:
 583            expression = expression.copy()
 584
 585        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 586
 587        self.unsupported_messages = []
 588        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 589
 590        if self.pretty:
 591            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 592
 593        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 594            return sql
 595
 596        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 597            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 598                logger.warning(msg)
 599        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 600            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 601
 602        return sql
 603
 604    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 605        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 606        if (
 607            not expression.parent
 608            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 609            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 610        ):
 611            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 612
 613            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 614
 615        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 616            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 617
 618            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 619
 620        return expression
 621
 622    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 623        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 624            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 625        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 626
 627    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 628        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 629
 630    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 631        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 632
 633    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 634        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 635        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 636        return comment
 637
 638    def maybe_comment(
 639        self,
 640        sql: str,
 641        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 642        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 643    ) -> str:
 644        comments = (
 645            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 646            if self.comments
 647            else None
 648        )
 649
 650        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 651            return sql
 652
 653        comments_sql = " ".join(
 654            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 655        )
 656
 657        if not comments_sql:
 658            return sql
 659
 660        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 661            return (
 662                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 663                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 664                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 665            )
 666
 667        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 668
 669    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 670        this_sql = self.indent(
 671            (
 672                self.sql(expression)
 673                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 674                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 675            ),
 676            level=1,
 677            pad=0,
 678        )
 679        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 680
 681    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 682        original = self.identify
 683        self.identify = False
 684        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 685        self.identify = original
 686        return result
 687
 688    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 689        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 690            return name.upper()
 691        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 692            return name.lower()
 693        return name
 694
 695    def indent(
 696        self,
 697        sql: str,
 698        level: int = 0,
 699        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 700        skip_first: bool = False,
 701        skip_last: bool = False,
 702    ) -> str:
 703        if not self.pretty:
 704            return sql
 705
 706        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 707        lines = sql.split("\n")
 708
 709        return "\n".join(
 710            (
 711                line
 712                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 713                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 714            )
 715            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 716        )
 717
 718    def sql(
 719        self,
 720        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 721        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 722        comment: bool = True,
 723    ) -> str:
 724        if not expression:
 725            return ""
 726
 727        if isinstance(expression, str):
 728            return expression
 729
 730        if key:
 731            value = expression.args.get(key)
 732            if value:
 733                return self.sql(value)
 734            return ""
 735
 736        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 737
 738        if callable(transform):
 739            sql = transform(self, expression)
 740        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 741            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 742
 743            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 744                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 745            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 746                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 747            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 748                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 749            else:
 750                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 751        else:
 752            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 753
 754        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 755
 756    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 757        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 758        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 759        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 760
 761    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 762        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 763        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 764        options = expression.args.get("options")
 765        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 766        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 767        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 768        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 769        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 770
 771    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 772        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 773            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 774        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 775        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 776
 777    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 778        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 779
 780        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 781            join_mark = ""
 782            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 783
 784        column = ".".join(
 785            self.sql(part)
 786            for part in (
 787                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 788                expression.args.get("db"),
 789                expression.args.get("table"),
 790                expression.args.get("this"),
 791            )
 792            if part
 793        )
 794
 795        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 796
 797    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 798        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 799        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 800        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 801        return f"{position}{this}"
 802
 803    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 804        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 805        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 806        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 807        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 808        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 809        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 810        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 811        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 812
 813        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 814            kind = ""
 815
 816        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 817
 818    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 820        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 821        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 822
 823    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 824        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 825        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 826            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 827        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 828            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 829        else:
 830            persisted = ""
 831        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 832
 833    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 834        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 835
 836    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 837        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 838            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 839        else:
 840            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 841
 842        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 843
 844    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 845        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 846    ) -> str:
 847        this = ""
 848        if expression.this is not None:
 849            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 850            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 851
 852        start = expression.args.get("start")
 853        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 854        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 855        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 856        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 857        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 858        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 859        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 860        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 861        cycle_sql = ""
 862
 863        if cycle is not None:
 864            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 865            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 866
 867        sequence_opts = ""
 868        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 869            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 870            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 871
 872        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 873        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 874
 875        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 876
 877    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 878        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 879    ) -> str:
 880        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 881        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 882        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 883
 884    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 885        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 886    ) -> str:
 887        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 888
 889    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 890        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 891
 892    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 893        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 894
 895    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 896        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 897        if desc is not None:
 898            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 899        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 900
 901    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 902        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 903        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 904        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 905        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 906        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 907        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 908        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 909
 910    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 911        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 912
 913    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 914        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 915        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 916        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 917
 918        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 919
 920        properties_sql = ""
 921        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 922            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 923        ):
 924            properties_sql = self.sql(
 925                exp.Properties(
 926                    expressions=[
 927                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 928                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 929                    ]
 930                )
 931            )
 932
 933        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 934        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 935
 936        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 937        if expression_sql:
 938            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 939
 940            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 941                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 942                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 943                        exp.Properties(
 944                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 945                        ),
 946                        wrapped=False,
 947                    )
 948                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 949                else:
 950                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 951
 952        postindex_props_sql = ""
 953        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 954            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 955                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 956                wrapped=False,
 957                prefix=" ",
 958            )
 959
 960        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 961        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 962        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 963
 964        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 965        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 966
 967        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 968        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 969            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 970                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 971                sep=" ",
 972                prefix=" ",
 973                wrapped=False,
 974            )
 975
 976        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 977
 978        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 979        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 980            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 981                exp.Properties(
 982                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 983                ),
 984                sep=" ",
 985                prefix=" ",
 986                wrapped=False,
 987            )
 988
 989        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 990        no_schema_binding = (
 991            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 992        )
 993
 994        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 995        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 996
 997        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 998        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 999
1000    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1001        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1002        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1003        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1004        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1005        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1006        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1007        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1008        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1009        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1010        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1011
1012        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1013        if cache is None:
1014            cache_str = ""
1015        elif cache is True:
1016            cache_str = " CACHE"
1017        else:
1018            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1019
1020        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1021        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1022
1023        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1024
1025    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1026        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1027        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1028        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1029        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1030
1031    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1032        style = expression.args.get("style")
1033        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1034        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1035
1036    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1037        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1038        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1039
1040    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1041        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1042        if with_:
1043            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1044        return sql
1045
1046    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1047        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1048        recursive = (
1049            "RECURSIVE "
1050            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1051            else ""
1052        )
1053
1054        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1055
1056    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1057        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1058
1059        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1060        if materialized is False:
1061            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1062        elif materialized:
1063            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1064
1065        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1066
1067    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1068        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1069        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1070        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1071
1072        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1073            columns = ""
1074            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1075
1076        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1077            alias = "_t"
1078
1079        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1080
1081    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1083        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1084            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1085        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1086
1087    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1088        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1089        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1090            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1091        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1092
1093    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1094        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1095        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1096            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1097        return this
1098
1099    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1100        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1101        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1102
1103        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1104            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1105            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1106
1107        if escape:
1108            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1109        else:
1110            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1111
1112        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1113        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1114
1115    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1116        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1117        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1118
1119    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1120        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1121        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1122        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1123        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1124
1125    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1126        type_value = expression.this
1127
1128        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1129            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1130        else:
1131            type_sql = (
1132                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1133                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1134                else type_value
1135            )
1136
1137        nested = ""
1138        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1139        values = ""
1140
1141        if interior:
1142            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1143                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1144                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1145                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1146                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1147                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1148            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1149                nested = f" {interior}"
1150            else:
1151                nested = f"({interior})"
1152
1153        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1154        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1155            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1156            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1157        ):
1158            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1159
1160        return type_sql
1161
1162    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1163        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1164        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1165        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1166        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1167
1168    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1169        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1170        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1171        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1172        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1173        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1174        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1175        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1176        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1177        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1178        if self.RETURNING_END:
1179            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1180        else:
1181            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1182        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1183
1184    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1185        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1186        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1187        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1188        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1189        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1190        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1191        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1192        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1193        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1194        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1195        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1196
1197    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1198        return self.set_operations(expression)
1199
1200    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1201        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1202
1203    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1204        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1205        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1206        count = expression.args.get("count")
1207        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1208        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1209            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1210        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1211        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1212
1213    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1214        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1215            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1216            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1217            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1218
1219        agg = expression.this
1220        agg_arg = agg.this
1221        cond = expression.expression.this
1222        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1223        return self.sql(agg)
1224
1225    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1226        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1227            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1228            return ""
1229
1230        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1231
1232    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1233        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1234        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1235        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1236        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1237        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1238        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1239        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1240        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1241        if include:
1242            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1243        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1244        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1245        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1246        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1247
1248        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1249
1250    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1251        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1252        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1253        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1254        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1255        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1256        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1257        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1258
1259        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1260
1261        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1262        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1263
1264    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1265        text = expression.name
1266        lower = text.lower()
1267        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1268        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1269        if (
1270            expression.quoted
1271            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1272            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1273            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1274        ):
1275            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1276        return text
1277
1278    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1279        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1280        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1281        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1282        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1283        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1284
1285    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1286        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1287        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1288
1289    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1290        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1291
1292    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1293        root_properties = []
1294        with_properties = []
1295
1296        for p in expression.expressions:
1297            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1298            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1299                with_properties.append(p)
1300            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1301                root_properties.append(p)
1302
1303        return self.root_properties(
1304            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1305        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1306
1307    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1308        if properties.expressions:
1309            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1310        return ""
1311
1312    def properties(
1313        self,
1314        properties: exp.Properties,
1315        prefix: str = "",
1316        sep: str = ", ",
1317        suffix: str = "",
1318        wrapped: bool = True,
1319    ) -> str:
1320        if properties.expressions:
1321            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1322            if expressions:
1323                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1324                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1325        return ""
1326
1327    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1328        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1329
1330    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1331        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1332        for p in properties.expressions:
1333            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1334            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1335                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1336            else:
1337                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1338
1339        return properties_locs
1340
1341    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1342        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1343            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1344        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1345
1346    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1347        property_cls = expression.__class__
1348        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1349            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1350
1351        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1352        if not property_name:
1353            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1354
1355        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1356
1357    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1358        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1359            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1360            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1361
1362            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1363            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1364                like = f"({like})"
1365
1366            return like
1367
1368        if expression.expressions:
1369            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1370
1371        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1372        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1373
1374    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1375        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1376        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1377        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1378
1379    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1380        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1381        local = expression.args.get("local")
1382        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1383        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1384        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1385        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1386        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1387
1388    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1389        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1390        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1391        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1392
1393    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1394        if expression.args.get("default"):
1395            property = "DEFAULT"
1396        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1397            property = "ON"
1398        else:
1399            property = "OFF"
1400        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1401
1402    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1403        if expression.args.get("no"):
1404            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1405        if expression.args.get("default"):
1406            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1407
1408        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1409        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1410
1411    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1412        default = expression.args.get("default")
1413        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1414        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1415        if default or minimum or maximum:
1416            if default:
1417                prop = "DEFAULT"
1418            elif minimum:
1419                prop = "MINIMUM"
1420            else:
1421                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1422            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1423        units = expression.args.get("units")
1424        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1425        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1426
1427    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1428        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1429        always = expression.args.get("always")
1430        default = expression.args.get("default")
1431        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1432        never = expression.args.get("never")
1433
1434        if autotemp is not None:
1435            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1436        elif always:
1437            prop = "ALWAYS"
1438        elif default:
1439            prop = "DEFAULT"
1440        elif manual:
1441            prop = "MANUAL"
1442        elif never:
1443            prop = "NEVER"
1444        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1445
1446    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1447        no = expression.args.get("no")
1448        no = " NO" if no else ""
1449        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1450        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1451        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1452        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1453        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1454
1455    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1456        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1457            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1458        if expression.this:
1459            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1460            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1461            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1462
1463        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1464        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1465        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1466
1467    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1468        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1469
1470        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1471        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1472            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1473        else:
1474            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1475
1476        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1477
1478    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1479        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1480        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1481        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1482        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1483        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1484        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1485        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1486
1487    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1488        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1489        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1490        statistics_sql = ""
1491        if statistics is not None:
1492            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1493        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1494
1495    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1496        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1497
1498        if expression.this:
1499            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1500            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1501
1502            if expression.expression:
1503                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1504                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1505
1506            sql = f"{sql})"
1507
1508        return f"{sql})"
1509
1510    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1511        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1512        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1513
1514        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1515            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1516        else:
1517            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1518
1519        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1520        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1521        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1522        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1523        if is_function:
1524            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1525        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1526
1527        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1528        partition_sql = (
1529            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1530        )
1531        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1532        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1533        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1534        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1535        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1536        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1537        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1538
1539        if self.RETURNING_END:
1540            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1541        else:
1542            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1543
1544        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1545        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1546
1547    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1548        return self.set_operations(expression)
1549
1550    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1551        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1552
1553    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1554        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1555
1556    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1557        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1558        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1559        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1560        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1561        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1562
1563    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1564        return expression.name
1565
1566    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1567        return expression.name
1568
1569    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1570        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1571
1572        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1573        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1574
1575        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1576        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1577        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1578
1579        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1580        if expressions:
1581            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1582            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1583
1584        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1585
1586    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1587        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1588
1589    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1590        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1591        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1592        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1593        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1594        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1595        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1596        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1597        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1598        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1599        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1600        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1601        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1602        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1603
1604    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1605        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1606
1607    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1608        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1609        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1610        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1611        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1612
1613    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1614        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1615        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1616        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1617        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1618
1619    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1620        return ".".join(
1621            self.sql(part)
1622            for part in (
1623                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1624                expression.args.get("db"),
1625                expression.args.get("this"),
1626            )
1627            if part is not None
1628        )
1629
1630    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1631        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1632        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1633        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1634        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1635        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1636        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1637        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1638        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1639        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1640        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1641        joins = self.indent(
1642            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1643        )
1644        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1645
1646        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1647        if file_format:
1648            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1649            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1650            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1651
1652        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1653        if ordinality:
1654            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1655            alias = ""
1656
1657        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1658        if when:
1659            table = f"{table} {when}"
1660
1661        return f"{only}{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1662
1663    def tablesample_sql(
1664        self,
1665        expression: exp.TableSample,
1666        sep: str = " AS ",
1667        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1668    ) -> str:
1669        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1670            table = expression.this.copy()
1671            table.set("alias", None)
1672            this = self.sql(table)
1673            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1674        else:
1675            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1676            alias = ""
1677
1678        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1679        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1680        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1681        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1682        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1683        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1684        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1685        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1686        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1687
1688        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1689        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1690            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1691
1692        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1693        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1694            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1695
1696        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1697        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1698            expr = f"({expr})"
1699
1700        return (
1701            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1702        )
1703
1704    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1705        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1706
1707        if expression.this:
1708            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1709            if not expressions:
1710                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1711
1712            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1713            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1714            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1715            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1716            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1717
1718        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1719        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1720        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1721        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1722        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1723        if include_nulls is not None:
1724            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1725        else:
1726            nulls = ""
1727        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1728
1729    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1730        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1731        kind = expression.text("kind")
1732        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1733        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1734
1735    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1736        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1737
1738    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1739        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1740        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1741        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1742        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1743        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1744        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1745        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1746        if self.RETURNING_END:
1747            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1748        else:
1749            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1750        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1751        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1752
1753    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1754        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1755
1756        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1757        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1758            args = self.expressions(expression)
1759            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1760            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1761            values = (
1762                f"({values})"
1763                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1764                else values
1765            )
1766            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1767
1768        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1769        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1770        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1771
1772        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1773
1774        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1775            row = tup.expressions
1776
1777            if i == 0 and column_names:
1778                row = [
1779                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1780                ]
1781
1782            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1783
1784        if self.pretty:
1785            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1786            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1787            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1788            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1789            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1790
1791        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1792        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1793        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1794
1795    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1796        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1797
1798    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1799        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1800        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1801        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1802
1803    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1804        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1805
1806    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1807        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1808        if group_by_all is True:
1809            modifier = " ALL"
1810        elif group_by_all is False:
1811            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1812        else:
1813            modifier = ""
1814
1815        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1816
1817        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1818        grouping_sets = (
1819            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1820        )
1821
1822        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1823        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1824            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1825        else:
1826            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1827            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1828
1829        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1830        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1831            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1832        else:
1833            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1834            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1835
1836        groupings = csv(
1837            grouping_sets,
1838            cube_sql,
1839            rollup_sql,
1840            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1841            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1842        )
1843
1844        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1845            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1846
1847        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1848
1849    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1850        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1851        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1852
1853    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1854        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1855        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1856        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1857        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1858        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1859        return start + connect
1860
1861    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1862        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1863
1864    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1865        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1866            side = None
1867        else:
1868            side = expression.side
1869
1870        op_sql = " ".join(
1871            op
1872            for op in (
1873                expression.method,
1874                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1875                side,
1876                expression.kind,
1877                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1878            )
1879            if op
1880        )
1881        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1882        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1883        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1884        using = expression.args.get("using")
1885
1886        if not on_sql and using:
1887            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1888
1889        this = expression.this
1890        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1891
1892        if on_sql:
1893            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1894            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1895            if using:
1896                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1897            else:
1898                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1899        elif not op_sql:
1900            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1901                return f" {this_sql}"
1902
1903            return f", {this_sql}"
1904
1905        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1906        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1907
1908    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1909        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1910        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1911        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1912
1913    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1914        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1915
1916        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1917        if cross_apply is True:
1918            op = "INNER JOIN "
1919        elif cross_apply is False:
1920            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1921        else:
1922            op = ""
1923
1924        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1925
1926    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1927        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1928
1929        if expression.args.get("view"):
1930            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1931            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1932            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1933            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1934            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1935            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1936
1937        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1938        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1939        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1940
1941    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1942        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1943
1944        args = [
1945            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1946            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1947            if e
1948        ]
1949
1950        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1951        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1952        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1953        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1954
1955        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
1956
1957    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1958        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1959        value = expression.expression
1960        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1961        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1962        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1963        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
1964
1965    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1966        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1967        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1969        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1970        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1971        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1972        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1973        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1974
1975    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1976        expressions = (
1977            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1978        )
1979        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1980        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1981
1982    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1983        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1984
1985    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1986        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1987            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1988            return ""
1989
1990        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1991        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1992        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1993        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1994
1995        if wait is not None:
1996            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1997                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1998            else:
1999                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2000
2001        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2002
2003    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2004        text = expression.this or ""
2005        if expression.is_string:
2006            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2007        return text
2008
2009    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2010        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2011            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2012            text = "".join(
2013                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2014            )
2015
2016        if self.pretty:
2017            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
2018
2019        return text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
2020
2021    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2022        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2023        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2024        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2025        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2026        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2027        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2028        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2029        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2030        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2031        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2032        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2033
2034    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2035        return "NULL"
2036
2037    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2038        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2039
2040    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2041        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2042        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2043        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2044        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2045        interpolated_values = [
2046            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2047            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2048        ]
2049        interpolate = (
2050            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2051        )
2052        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2053
2054    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2055        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2056        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2057        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2058        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2059        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2060        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2061        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2062
2063    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2064        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2065
2066    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2067        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2068
2069    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2070        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2071
2072    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2073        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2074        asc = not desc
2075
2076        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2077        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2078        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2079        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2080        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2081
2082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2083
2084        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2085        nulls_sort_change = ""
2086        if nulls_first and (
2087            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2088        ):
2089            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2090        elif (
2091            nulls_last
2092            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2093            and not nulls_are_last
2094        ):
2095            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2096
2097        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2098        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2099            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2100            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2101                self.unsupported(
2102                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2103                )
2104                nulls_sort_change = ""
2105            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2106                if expression.this.is_int:
2107                    self.unsupported(
2108                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2109                    )
2110                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2111                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2112                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2113                nulls_sort_change = ""
2114
2115        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2116        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2117
2118        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2119
2120    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2121        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2122        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2123
2124        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2125
2126        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2127
2128    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2129        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2130        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2131        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2132        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2133        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2134        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2135        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2136        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2137        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2138        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2139        definition_sqls = [
2140            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2141            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2142        ]
2143        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2144        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2145        body = "".join(
2146            (
2147                partition,
2148                order,
2149                measures,
2150                rows,
2151                after,
2152                pattern,
2153                define,
2154            )
2155        )
2156        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2157        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2158        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2159
2160    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2161        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2162
2163        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2164            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2165        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2166            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2167
2168        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2169        if options:
2170            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2171
2172        return csv(
2173            *sqls,
2174            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2175            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2176            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2177            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2178            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2179            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2180            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2181            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2182            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2183            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2184            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2185            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2186            options,
2187            sep="",
2188        )
2189
2190    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2191        return ""
2192
2193    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2194        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2195    ) -> t.List[str]:
2196        return [
2197            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2198            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2199        ]
2200
2201    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2202        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2203        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2204        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2205
2206    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2207        into = expression.args.get("into")
2208        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2209            into.pop()
2210
2211        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2212        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2213        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2214        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2215
2216        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2217        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2218            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2219            limit.pop()
2220        else:
2221            top = ""
2222
2223        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2224
2225        if kind:
2226            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2227                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2228            else:
2229                if kind == "STRUCT":
2230                    expressions = self.expressions(
2231                        sqls=[
2232                            self.sql(
2233                                exp.Struct(
2234                                    expressions=[
2235                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2236                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2237                                        else e
2238                                        for e in expression.expressions
2239                                    ]
2240                                )
2241                            )
2242                        ]
2243                    )
2244                kind = ""
2245
2246        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2247        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2248        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2249        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2250        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2251            expression,
2252            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2253            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2254            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2255        )
2256
2257        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2258
2259        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2260            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2261                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2262            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2263                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2264            else:
2265                table_kind = ""
2266            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2267
2268        return sql
2269
2270    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2271        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2272        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2273        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2274
2275    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2276        if expression.expressions:
2277            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2278        return ""
2279
2280    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2281        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2282        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2283        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2284        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2285        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2286
2287    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2288        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2289        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2290
2291    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2292        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2293        kind = expression.text("kind")
2294        if kind:
2295            kind = f"{kind}."
2296        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2297
2298    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2299        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2300
2301    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2302        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2303        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2304
2305        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2306        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2307
2308        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2309        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2310
2311    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2312        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2313        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2314
2315    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2316        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2317        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2318
2319        while stack:
2320            node = stack.pop()
2321
2322            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2323                stack.append(node.expression)
2324                stack.append(
2325                    self.maybe_comment(
2326                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2327                        expression=node.this,
2328                        comments=node.comments,
2329                    )
2330                )
2331                stack.append(node.this)
2332            else:
2333                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2334
2335        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2336        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2337        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2338
2339    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2340        return self.set_operations(expression)
2341
2342    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2343        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2344        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2345        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2346        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2347
2348    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2349        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2350
2351        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2352        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2353
2354        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2355            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2356                alias.append("columns", offset)
2357
2358        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2359            columns = alias.columns
2360            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2361        else:
2362            alias = self.sql(alias)
2363
2364        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2365        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2366            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2367        else:
2368            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2369                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2370            elif offset:
2371                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2372            else:
2373                suffix = alias
2374
2375        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2376
2377    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2378        return ""
2379
2380    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2381        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2382        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2383
2384    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2385        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2386        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2387        order = expression.args.get("order")
2388        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2389        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2390        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2391        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2392
2393        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2394
2395        first = expression.args.get("first")
2396        if first is None:
2397            first = ""
2398        else:
2399            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2400
2401        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2402            return f"{this} {alias}"
2403
2404        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2405        return f"{this} ({args})"
2406
2407    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2408        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2409        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2410
2411    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2412        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2413        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2414        end = (
2415            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2416            or "CURRENT ROW"
2417        )
2418        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2419
2420    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2421        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2422        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2423        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2424
2425    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2426        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2427        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2428        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2429        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2430
2431    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2432        return apply_index_offset(
2433            expression.this,
2434            expression.expressions,
2435            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2436        )
2437
2438    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2439        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2440        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2441        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2442
2443    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2444        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2445
2446    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2447        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2448        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2449            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2450                this = self.wrap(this)
2451            return f"ANY{this}"
2452        return f"ANY {this}"
2453
2454    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2455        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2456
2457    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2458        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2459        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2460
2461        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2462            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2463            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2464
2465        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2466
2467        if default:
2468            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2469
2470        statements.append("END")
2471
2472        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2473            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2474
2475        return " ".join(statements)
2476
2477    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2478        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2479        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2480        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2481
2482    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2483        order = expression.args.get("order")
2484        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2485        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2486
2487    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2488        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2489        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2490        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2491
2492    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2493        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2494
2495        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2496            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2497        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2498            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2499        else:
2500            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2501
2502    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2503        args = expression.expressions
2504        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2505            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2506
2507        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2508            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2509
2510        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2511            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2512
2513        return args
2514
2515    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2516        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2517
2518        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2519        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2520            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2521
2522        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2523
2524    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2525        return self.func(
2526            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2527        )
2528
2529    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2530        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2531        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2532
2533    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2534        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2535        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2536        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2537        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2538        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2539        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2540        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2541        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2542
2543    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2544        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2545        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2546        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2547        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2548
2549    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2550        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2551
2552    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2553        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2554        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2555        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2556
2557    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2558        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2559
2560    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2561        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2562        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2563
2564    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2565        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2566            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2567            if not callable(transform):
2568                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2569                return ""
2570
2571            return transform(self, expression)
2572
2573        if isinstance(expression, int):
2574            return str(expression)
2575
2576        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2577            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2578            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2579        else:
2580            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2581            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2582
2583        return escaped
2584
2585    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2586        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2587
2588    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2589        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2590        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2591
2592        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2593        if unique_keys is not None:
2594            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2595        else:
2596            unique_keys = ""
2597
2598        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2599        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2600        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2601        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2602
2603        return self.func(
2604            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2605            *expression.expressions,
2606            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2607        )
2608
2609    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2610        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2611
2612    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2613        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2614        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2615        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2616        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2617        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2618        return self.func(
2619            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2620        )
2621
2622    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2623        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2624        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2625        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2626        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2627        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2628        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2629        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2630        return self.func(
2631            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2632            this,
2633            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2634        )
2635
2636    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2637        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2638        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2639        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2640
2641        if nested_schema:
2642            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2643
2644        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2645        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2646        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2647        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2648
2649    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2650        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2651
2652    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2653        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2654        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2655        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2656        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2657        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2658        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2659        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2660        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2661        return self.func(
2662            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2663        )
2664
2665    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2666        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2667        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2668        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2669        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2670        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2671        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2672
2673    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2674        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2675        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2676        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2677        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2678        with_ = (
2679            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2680            if expressions
2681            else ""
2682        )
2683        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2684
2685    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2686        query = expression.args.get("query")
2687        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2688        field = expression.args.get("field")
2689        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2690
2691        if query:
2692            in_sql = self.wrap(self.sql(query))
2693        elif unnest:
2694            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2695        elif field:
2696            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2697        else:
2698            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2699
2700        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2701
2702    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2703        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2704
2705    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2706        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2707        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2708            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2709        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2710
2711        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2712            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2713            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2714
2715        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2716        if this:
2717            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2718            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2719
2720        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2721
2722    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2723        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2724
2725    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2726        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2727        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2728        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2729        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2730        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2731        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2732
2733    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2734        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2735
2736    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2737        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2738        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2739
2740    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2741        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2742        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2743        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2744        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2745
2746    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2747        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2748
2749    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2750        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2751        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2752        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2753
2754    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2755        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2756        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2757
2758        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2759            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2760        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2761            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2762
2763        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2764
2765    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2766        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2767
2768    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2769        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2770        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2771        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2772
2773    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2774        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2775        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2776        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2777
2778    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2779        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2780        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2781        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2782
2783    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2784        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2785
2786    def and_sql(
2787        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2788    ) -> str:
2789        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2790
2791    def or_sql(
2792        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2793    ) -> str:
2794        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2795
2796    def xor_sql(
2797        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2798    ) -> str:
2799        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2800
2801    def connector_sql(
2802        self,
2803        expression: exp.Connector,
2804        op: str,
2805        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2806    ) -> str:
2807        if stack is not None:
2808            if expression.expressions:
2809                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2810            else:
2811                stack.append(expression.right)
2812                if expression.comments:
2813                    for comment in expression.comments:
2814                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2815                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2816            return op
2817
2818        stack = [expression]
2819        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2820        ops = set()
2821
2822        while stack:
2823            node = stack.pop()
2824            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2825                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2826            else:
2827                sql = self.sql(node)
2828                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2829                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2830                else:
2831                    sqls.append(sql)
2832
2833        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2834        return sep.join(sqls)
2835
2836    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2837        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2838
2839    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2840        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2841
2842    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2843        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2844
2845    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2846        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2847
2848    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2849        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2850
2851    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2852        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2853
2854    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2855        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2856        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2857        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2858        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2859        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2860        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2861        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2862
2863    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2864        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2865        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2866
2867    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2868        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2869
2870    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2871        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2872            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2873        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2874
2875    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2876        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2877
2878    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2879        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2880        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2881        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2882        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2883        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2884        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2885
2886    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2887        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2888        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2889        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2890        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2891        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2892        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2893        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2894        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2895        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2896
2897    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2898        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2899        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2900        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2901        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2902
2903        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2904            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2905
2906        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2907
2908    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2909        return "BEGIN"
2910
2911    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2912        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2913        if chain is not None:
2914            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2915
2916        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2917
2918    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2919        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2920        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2921        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2922
2923    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2924        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2925
2926        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2927        if dtype:
2928            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2929            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2930            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2931            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2932            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2933
2934        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2935        if default:
2936            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2937
2938        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2939        if comment:
2940            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2941
2942        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2943            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2944
2945        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2946
2947    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2948        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2949            # Remove db from tables
2950            expression = expression.transform(
2951                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2952            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2953        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2954        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2955
2956    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2957        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2958        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2959        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2960        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
2961
2962    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2963        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2964
2965        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2966            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2967        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2968            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2969        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2970            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2971        else:
2972            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2973
2974        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2975        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2976        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2977        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
2978        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
2979
2980    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2981        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2982            return self.expressions(
2983                expression,
2984                key="actions",
2985                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2986            )
2987        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2988
2989    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2990        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2991        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2992        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2993
2994    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2995        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
2996
2997    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2998        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2999
3000        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3001            case = exp.case()
3002            for arg in expression.expressions:
3003                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3004            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3005
3006        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3007
3008        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3009        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3010        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3011
3012    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3013        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3014
3015    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3016        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3017
3018    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3019        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3020        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3021        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3022        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3023
3024    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3025        return self.sql(
3026            exp.Cast(
3027                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3028                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3029            )
3030        )
3031
3032    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3033        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3034            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
3035        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3036
3037    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3038        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3039
3040        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3041            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3042
3043        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3044            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3045                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3046
3047        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3048            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3049                return self.sql(
3050                    exp.cast(
3051                        l / r,
3052                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3053                    )
3054                )
3055
3056        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3057
3058    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3059        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3060
3061    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3062        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3063
3064    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3065        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3066
3067    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3068        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3069
3070    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3071        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3072
3073    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3074        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3075
3076    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3077        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3078
3079    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3080        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3081
3082    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3083        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3084
3085    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3086        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3087
3088    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3089        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3090
3091    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3092        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3093            return self.sql(
3094                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3095            )
3096        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3097
3098    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3099        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3100
3101    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3102        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3103
3104    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3105        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3106
3107    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3108        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3109
3110    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3111        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3112
3113    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3114        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3115
3116    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3117        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3118
3119    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3120        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3121
3122    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3123        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3124
3125    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3126        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3127
3128    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3129        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3130
3131    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3132        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3133
3134    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3135        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3136
3137    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3138        this = expression.this
3139        expr = expression.expression
3140
3141        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3142            this, expr = expr, this
3143        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3144            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3145                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3146
3147            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3148
3149        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3150
3151    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3152        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3153        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3154        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3155        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3156        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3157
3158    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3159        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3160        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3161
3162    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3163        args = []
3164
3165        for key in expression.arg_types:
3166            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3167
3168            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3169                for value in arg_value:
3170                    args.append(value)
3171            elif arg_value is not None:
3172                args.append(arg_value)
3173
3174        if self.normalize_functions:
3175            name = expression.sql_name()
3176        else:
3177            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3178
3179        return self.func(name, *args)
3180
3181    def func(
3182        self,
3183        name: str,
3184        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3185        prefix: str = "(",
3186        suffix: str = ")",
3187    ) -> str:
3188        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3189
3190    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3191        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3192        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
3193            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3194        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3195
3196    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
3197        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
3198
3199    def format_time(
3200        self,
3201        expression: exp.Expression,
3202        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3203        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3204    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3205        return format_time(
3206            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3207            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3208            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3209        )
3210
3211    def expressions(
3212        self,
3213        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3214        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3215        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3216        flat: bool = False,
3217        indent: bool = True,
3218        skip_first: bool = False,
3219        sep: str = ", ",
3220        prefix: str = "",
3221    ) -> str:
3222        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3223
3224        if not expressions:
3225            return ""
3226
3227        if flat:
3228            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3229
3230        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3231
3232        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3233        if self.pretty:
3234            if self.leading_comma:
3235                pad = " " * len(sep)
3236            else:
3237                stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3238
3239        result_sqls = []
3240        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3241            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3242            if not sql:
3243                continue
3244
3245            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3246
3247            if self.pretty:
3248                if self.leading_comma:
3249                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3250                else:
3251                    result_sqls.append(
3252                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3253                    )
3254            else:
3255                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3256
3257        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
3258        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
3259
3260    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3261        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3262        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3263        if flat:
3264            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3265        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3266
3267    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3268        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3269        if not property_name:
3270            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3271        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3272
3273    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3274        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3275
3276    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3277        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3278
3279    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3280        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3281        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3282        expressions = (
3283            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3284        )
3285        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3286
3287    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3288        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3289        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3290        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3291
3292    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3293        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3294
3295    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3296        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3297        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3298        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3299        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3300
3301        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3302        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3303            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3304            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3305                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3306        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3307            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3308                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3309            else:
3310                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3311        else:
3312            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3313        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3314
3315    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3316        table = expression.this
3317        table_alias = ""
3318
3319        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3320        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3321            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3322            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3323
3324        this = self.sql(table)
3325        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3326        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3327        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3328
3329        return self.prepend_ctes(
3330            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3331        )
3332
3333    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3334        if expression.args.get("format"):
3335            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3336
3337        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
3338
3339    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3340        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3341            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3342            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3343
3344        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3345        if not fmt:
3346            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3347            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3348
3349        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3350
3351    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3352        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3353        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3354        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3355        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3356        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3357
3358    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3359        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3360        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3361        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3362        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3363
3364    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3365        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3366
3367    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3368        return ""
3369
3370    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3371        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3372        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3373        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3374        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3375        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3376
3377    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3378        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3379        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3380
3381        if having:
3382            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3383
3384        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3385
3386    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3387        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3388        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3389        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3390        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3391        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3392        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3393        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3394        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3395        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3396        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3397        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3398        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3399        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3400
3401    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3402        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3403        if key_block_size:
3404            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3405
3406        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3407        if using:
3408            return f"USING {using}"
3409
3410        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3411        if parser:
3412            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3413
3414        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3415        if comment:
3416            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3417
3418        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3419        if visible is not None:
3420            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3421
3422        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3423        if engine_attr:
3424            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3425
3426        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3427        if secondary_engine_attr:
3428            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3429
3430        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3431        return ""
3432
3433    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3434        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3435        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3436
3437    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3438        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3439        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3440        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3441        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3442        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3443        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3444        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3445        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3446        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3447        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3448        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3449
3450    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3451        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3452            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3453
3454        case = exp.Case().when(
3455            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3456            expression.args["true"],
3457            copy=False,
3458        )
3459        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3460        if else_cond:
3461            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3462
3463        return self.sql(case)
3464
3465    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3466        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3467        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3468        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3469        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3470        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3471        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3472
3473    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3474        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3475
3476    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3477        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3478
3479    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3480        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3481        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3482        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3483        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3484        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3485        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3486
3487    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3488        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3489        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3490        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3491
3492    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3493        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3494        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3495        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3496
3497    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3498        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3499
3500    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3501        arg = expression.this
3502        if not arg.type:
3503            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3504
3505            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3506
3507        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3508            return self.sql(arg)
3509
3510        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3511        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3512
3513    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3514        this = expression.this
3515        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3516            return self.sql(this)
3517
3518        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
3519
3520    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3521        this = expression.this
3522        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3523            return self.sql(this)
3524
3525        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "timestamp"))
3526
3527    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3528        this = expression.this
3529        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3530
3531        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3532            return self.sql(
3533                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3534            )
3535
3536        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3537            return self.sql(this)
3538
3539        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
3540
3541    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3542        return self.sql(
3543            exp.func(
3544                "DATEDIFF",
3545                expression.this,
3546                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3547                "day",
3548            )
3549        )
3550
3551    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3552        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3553            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3554
3555        unit = expression.text("unit")
3556        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3557            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3558
3559        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3560
3561    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3562        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3563
3564        return self.func(
3565            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3566        )
3567
3568    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3569        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3570            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3571            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3572            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3573            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3574
3575        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3576
3577        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3578        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3579            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3580
3581        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3582
3583    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3584        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3585        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3586
3587    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3588        expression.set(
3589            "expressions",
3590            [
3591                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3592                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3593                else e
3594                for e in expression.expressions
3595            ],
3596        )
3597
3598        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3599
3600    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3601        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3602        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3603
3604        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3605
3606    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3607        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3608        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3609
3610        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3611
3612        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3613        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3614
3615        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3616        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3617
3618        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3619        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3620
3621        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3622        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3623
3624        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3625
3626    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3627    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3628    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3629        to = expression.this
3630        value = expression.expression
3631        style = expression.args.get("style")
3632        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3633        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3634
3635        if not to or not value:
3636            return ""
3637
3638        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3639        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3640            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3641
3642        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3643        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3644
3645        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3646        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3647            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3648
3649            style_value = style.name
3650            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3651            if not converted_style:
3652                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3653
3654            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3655
3656            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3657                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3658            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3659                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3660            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3661                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3662            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3663                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3664
3665        if not transformed:
3666            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3667
3668        return self.sql(transformed)
3669
3670    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3671        this = expression.this
3672        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3673            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3674            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3675
3676        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3677            return f".{this}"
3678
3679        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3680        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3681
3682    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3683        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3684        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3685
3686    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3687        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3688            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3689
3690            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3691
3692        return expression
3693
3694    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3695        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3696            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3697            mods = sorted(
3698                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3699                key=lambda x: 0
3700                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3701                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3702            )
3703
3704            if mods:
3705                mod = mods[0]
3706                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3707                this.meta["inline"] = True
3708                mod.this.replace(this)
3709                return self.sql(expression.this)
3710
3711            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3712
3713            if agg_func:
3714                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3715
3716        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
527    def __init__(
528        self,
529        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
530        identify: str | bool = False,
531        normalize: bool = False,
532        pad: int = 2,
533        indent: int = 2,
534        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
535        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
536        max_unsupported: int = 3,
537        leading_comma: bool = False,
538        max_text_width: int = 80,
539        comments: bool = True,
540        dialect: DialectType = None,
541    ):
542        import sqlglot
543        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
544
545        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
546        self.identify = identify
547        self.normalize = normalize
548        self.pad = pad
549        self._indent = indent
550        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
551        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
552        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
553        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
554        self.comments = comments
555        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
556
557        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
558        self.normalize_functions = (
559            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
560        )
561
562        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
563        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
564            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
565        )
566        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
567            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
568        )
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtract'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtractScalar'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Timestamp'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
570    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
571        """
572        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
573
574        Args:
575            expression: The syntax tree.
576            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
577                it is safer to copy.
578
579        Returns:
580            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
581        """
582        if copy:
583            expression = expression.copy()
584
585        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
586
587        self.unsupported_messages = []
588        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
589
590        if self.pretty:
591            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
592
593        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
594            return sql
595
596        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
597            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
598                logger.warning(msg)
599        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
600            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
601
602        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
604    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
605        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
606        if (
607            not expression.parent
608            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
609            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
610        ):
611            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
612
613            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
614
615        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
616            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
617
618            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
619
620        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
622    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
623        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
624            raise UnsupportedError(message)
625        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
627    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
628        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
630    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
631        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
633    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
634        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
635        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
636        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
638    def maybe_comment(
639        self,
640        sql: str,
641        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
642        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
643    ) -> str:
644        comments = (
645            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
646            if self.comments
647            else None
648        )
649
650        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
651            return sql
652
653        comments_sql = " ".join(
654            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
655        )
656
657        if not comments_sql:
658            return sql
659
660        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
661            return (
662                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
663                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
664                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
665            )
666
667        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
669    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
670        this_sql = self.indent(
671            (
672                self.sql(expression)
673                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
674                else self.sql(expression, "this")
675            ),
676            level=1,
677            pad=0,
678        )
679        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
681    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
682        original = self.identify
683        self.identify = False
684        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
685        self.identify = original
686        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
688    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
689        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
690            return name.upper()
691        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
692            return name.lower()
693        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
695    def indent(
696        self,
697        sql: str,
698        level: int = 0,
699        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
700        skip_first: bool = False,
701        skip_last: bool = False,
702    ) -> str:
703        if not self.pretty:
704            return sql
705
706        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
707        lines = sql.split("\n")
708
709        return "\n".join(
710            (
711                line
712                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
713                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
714            )
715            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
716        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
718    def sql(
719        self,
720        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
721        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
722        comment: bool = True,
723    ) -> str:
724        if not expression:
725            return ""
726
727        if isinstance(expression, str):
728            return expression
729
730        if key:
731            value = expression.args.get(key)
732            if value:
733                return self.sql(value)
734            return ""
735
736        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
737
738        if callable(transform):
739            sql = transform(self, expression)
740        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
741            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
742
743            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
744                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
745            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
746                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
747            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
748                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
749            else:
750                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
751        else:
752            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
753
754        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
756    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
757        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
758        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
759        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
761    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
762        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
763        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
764        options = expression.args.get("options")
765        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
766        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
767        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
768        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
769        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
771    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
772        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
773            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
774        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
775        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
777    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
778        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
779
780        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
781            join_mark = ""
782            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
783
784        column = ".".join(
785            self.sql(part)
786            for part in (
787                expression.args.get("catalog"),
788                expression.args.get("db"),
789                expression.args.get("table"),
790                expression.args.get("this"),
791            )
792            if part
793        )
794
795        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
797    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
798        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
799        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
800        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
801        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
803    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
804        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
805        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
806        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
807        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
808        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
809        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
810        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
811        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
812
813        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
814            kind = ""
815
816        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
818    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
820        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
821        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
823    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
824        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
825        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
826            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
827        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
828            persisted = " PERSISTED"
829        else:
830            persisted = ""
831        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
833    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
834        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
836    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
837        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
838            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
839        else:
840            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
841
842        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
844    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
845        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
846    ) -> str:
847        this = ""
848        if expression.this is not None:
849            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
850            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
851
852        start = expression.args.get("start")
853        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
854        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
855        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
856        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
857        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
858        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
859        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
860        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
861        cycle_sql = ""
862
863        if cycle is not None:
864            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
865            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
866
867        sequence_opts = ""
868        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
869            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
870            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
871
872        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
873        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
874
875        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
877    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
878        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
879    ) -> str:
880        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
881        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
882        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
884    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
885        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
886    ) -> str:
887        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
889    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
890        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
892    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
893        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
895    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
896        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
897        if desc is not None:
898            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
899        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
901    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
902        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
903        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
904        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
905        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
906        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
907        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
908        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
910    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
911        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
913    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
914        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
915        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
916        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
917
918        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
919
920        properties_sql = ""
921        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
922            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
923        ):
924            properties_sql = self.sql(
925                exp.Properties(
926                    expressions=[
927                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
928                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
929                    ]
930                )
931            )
932
933        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
934        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
935
936        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
937        if expression_sql:
938            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
939
940            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
941                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
942                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
943                        exp.Properties(
944                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
945                        ),
946                        wrapped=False,
947                    )
948                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
949                else:
950                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
951
952        postindex_props_sql = ""
953        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
954            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
955                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
956                wrapped=False,
957                prefix=" ",
958            )
959
960        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
961        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
962        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
963
964        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
965        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
966
967        postcreate_props_sql = ""
968        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
969            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
970                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
971                sep=" ",
972                prefix=" ",
973                wrapped=False,
974            )
975
976        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
977
978        postexpression_props_sql = ""
979        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
980            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
981                exp.Properties(
982                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
983                ),
984                sep=" ",
985                prefix=" ",
986                wrapped=False,
987            )
988
989        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
990        no_schema_binding = (
991            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
992        )
993
994        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
995        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
996
997        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
998        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1000    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1001        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1002        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1003        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1004        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1005        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1006        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1007        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1008        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1009        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1010        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1011
1012        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1013        if cache is None:
1014            cache_str = ""
1015        elif cache is True:
1016            cache_str = " CACHE"
1017        else:
1018            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1019
1020        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1021        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1022
1023        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1025    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1026        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1027        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1028        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1029        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1031    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1032        style = expression.args.get("style")
1033        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1034        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1036    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1037        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1038        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1040    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1041        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1042        if with_:
1043            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1044        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1046    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1047        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1048        recursive = (
1049            "RECURSIVE "
1050            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1051            else ""
1052        )
1053
1054        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1056    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1057        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1058
1059        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1060        if materialized is False:
1061            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1062        elif materialized:
1063            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1064
1065        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1067    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1068        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1069        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1070        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1071
1072        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1073            columns = ""
1074            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1075
1076        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1077            alias = "_t"
1078
1079        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1081    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1083        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1084            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1085        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1087    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1088        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1089        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1090            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1091        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1093    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1094        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1095        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1096            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1097        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1099    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1100        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1101        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1102
1103        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1104            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1105            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1106
1107        if escape:
1108            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1109        else:
1110            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1111
1112        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1113        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1115    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1116        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1117        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1119    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1120        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1121        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1122        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1123        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1125    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1126        type_value = expression.this
1127
1128        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1129            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1130        else:
1131            type_sql = (
1132                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1133                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1134                else type_value
1135            )
1136
1137        nested = ""
1138        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1139        values = ""
1140
1141        if interior:
1142            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1143                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1144                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1145                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1146                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1147                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1148            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1149                nested = f" {interior}"
1150            else:
1151                nested = f"({interior})"
1152
1153        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1154        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1155            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1156            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1157        ):
1158            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1159
1160        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1162    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1163        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1164        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1165        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1166        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1168    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1169        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1170        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1171        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1172        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1173        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1174        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1175        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1176        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1177        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1178        if self.RETURNING_END:
1179            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1180        else:
1181            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1182        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1184    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1185        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1186        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1187        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1188        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1189        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1190        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1191        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1192        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1193        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1194        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1195        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1197    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1198        return self.set_operations(expression)
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1200    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1201        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1203    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1204        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1205        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1206        count = expression.args.get("count")
1207        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1208        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1209            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1210        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1211        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1213    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1214        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1215            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1216            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1217            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1218
1219        agg = expression.this
1220        agg_arg = agg.this
1221        cond = expression.expression.this
1222        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1223        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1225    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1226        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1227            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1228            return ""
1229
1230        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1232    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1233        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1234        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1235        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1236        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1237        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1238        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1239        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1240        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1241        if include:
1242            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1243        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1244        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1245        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1246        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1247
1248        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1250    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1251        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1252        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1253        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1254        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1255        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1256        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1257        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1258
1259        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1260
1261        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1262        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1264    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1265        text = expression.name
1266        lower = text.lower()
1267        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1268        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1269        if (
1270            expression.quoted
1271            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1272            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1273            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1274        ):
1275            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1276        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1278    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1279        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1280        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1281        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1282        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1283        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1285    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1286        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1287        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1289    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1290        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1292    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1293        root_properties = []
1294        with_properties = []
1295
1296        for p in expression.expressions:
1297            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1298            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1299                with_properties.append(p)
1300            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1301                root_properties.append(p)
1302
1303        return self.root_properties(
1304            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1305        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1307    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1308        if properties.expressions:
1309            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1310        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1312    def properties(
1313        self,
1314        properties: exp.Properties,
1315        prefix: str = "",
1316        sep: str = ", ",
1317        suffix: str = "",
1318        wrapped: bool = True,
1319    ) -> str:
1320        if properties.expressions:
1321            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1322            if expressions:
1323                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1324                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1325        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1327    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1328        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1330    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1331        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1332        for p in properties.expressions:
1333            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1334            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1335                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1336            else:
1337                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1338
1339        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1341    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1342        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1343            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1344        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1346    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1347        property_cls = expression.__class__
1348        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1349            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1350
1351        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1352        if not property_name:
1353            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1354
1355        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1357    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1358        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1359            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1360            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1361
1362            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1363            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1364                like = f"({like})"
1365
1366            return like
1367
1368        if expression.expressions:
1369            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1370
1371        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1372        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1374    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1375        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1376        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1377        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1379    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1380        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1381        local = expression.args.get("local")
1382        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1383        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1384        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1385        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1386        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1388    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1389        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1390        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1391        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1393    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1394        if expression.args.get("default"):
1395            property = "DEFAULT"
1396        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1397            property = "ON"
1398        else:
1399            property = "OFF"
1400        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1402    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1403        if expression.args.get("no"):
1404            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1405        if expression.args.get("default"):
1406            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1407
1408        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1409        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1411    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1412        default = expression.args.get("default")
1413        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1414        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1415        if default or minimum or maximum:
1416            if default:
1417                prop = "DEFAULT"
1418            elif minimum:
1419                prop = "MINIMUM"
1420            else:
1421                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1422            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1423        units = expression.args.get("units")
1424        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1425        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1427    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1428        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1429        always = expression.args.get("always")
1430        default = expression.args.get("default")
1431        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1432        never = expression.args.get("never")
1433
1434        if autotemp is not None:
1435            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1436        elif always:
1437            prop = "ALWAYS"
1438        elif default:
1439            prop = "DEFAULT"
1440        elif manual:
1441            prop = "MANUAL"
1442        elif never:
1443            prop = "NEVER"
1444        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1446    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1447        no = expression.args.get("no")
1448        no = " NO" if no else ""
1449        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1450        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1451        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1452        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1453        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1455    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1456        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1457            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1458        if expression.this:
1459            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1460            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1461            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1462
1463        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1464        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1465        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1467    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1468        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1469
1470        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1471        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1472            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1473        else:
1474            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1475
1476        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1478    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1479        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1480        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1481        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1482        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1483        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1484        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1485        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1487    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1488        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1489        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1490        statistics_sql = ""
1491        if statistics is not None:
1492            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1493        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1495    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1496        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1497
1498        if expression.this:
1499            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1500            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1501
1502            if expression.expression:
1503                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1504                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1505
1506            sql = f"{sql})"
1507
1508        return f"{sql})"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1510    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1511        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1512        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1513
1514        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1515            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1516        else:
1517            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1518
1519        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1520        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1521        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1522        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1523        if is_function:
1524            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1525        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1526
1527        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1528        partition_sql = (
1529            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1530        )
1531        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1532        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1533        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1534        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1535        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1536        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1537        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1538
1539        if self.RETURNING_END:
1540            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1541        else:
1542            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1543
1544        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1545        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1547    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1548        return self.set_operations(expression)
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1550    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1551        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1553    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1554        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1556    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1557        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1558        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1559        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1560        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1561        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1563    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1564        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1566    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1567        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1569    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1570        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1571
1572        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1573        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1574
1575        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1576        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1577        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1578
1579        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1580        if expressions:
1581            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1582            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1583
1584        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1586    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1587        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1589    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1590        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1591        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1592        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1593        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1594        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1595        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1596        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1597        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1598        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1599        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1600        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1601        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1602        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1604    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1605        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1607    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1608        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1609        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1610        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1611        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1613    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1614        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1615        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1616        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1617        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1619    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1620        return ".".join(
1621            self.sql(part)
1622            for part in (
1623                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1624                expression.args.get("db"),
1625                expression.args.get("this"),
1626            )
1627            if part is not None
1628        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1630    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1631        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1632        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1633        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1634        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1635        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1636        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1637        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1638        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1639        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1640        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1641        joins = self.indent(
1642            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1643        )
1644        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1645
1646        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1647        if file_format:
1648            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1649            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1650            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1651
1652        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1653        if ordinality:
1654            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1655            alias = ""
1656
1657        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1658        if when:
1659            table = f"{table} {when}"
1660
1661        return f"{only}{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1663    def tablesample_sql(
1664        self,
1665        expression: exp.TableSample,
1666        sep: str = " AS ",
1667        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1668    ) -> str:
1669        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1670            table = expression.this.copy()
1671            table.set("alias", None)
1672            this = self.sql(table)
1673            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1674        else:
1675            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1676            alias = ""
1677
1678        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1679        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1680        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1681        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1682        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1683        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1684        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1685        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1686        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1687
1688        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1689        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1690            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1691
1692        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1693        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1694            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1695
1696        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1697        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1698            expr = f"({expr})"
1699
1700        return (
1701            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1702        )
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1704    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1705        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1706
1707        if expression.this:
1708            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1709            if not expressions:
1710                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1711
1712            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1713            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1714            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1715            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1716            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1717
1718        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1719        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1720        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1721        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1722        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1723        if include_nulls is not None:
1724            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1725        else:
1726            nulls = ""
1727        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1729    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1730        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1731        kind = expression.text("kind")
1732        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1733        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1735    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1736        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1738    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1739        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1740        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1741        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1742        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1743        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1744        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1745        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1746        if self.RETURNING_END:
1747            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1748        else:
1749            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1750        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1751        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1753    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1754        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1755
1756        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1757        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1758            args = self.expressions(expression)
1759            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1760            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1761            values = (
1762                f"({values})"
1763                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1764                else values
1765            )
1766            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1767
1768        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1769        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1770        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1771
1772        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1773
1774        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1775            row = tup.expressions
1776
1777            if i == 0 and column_names:
1778                row = [
1779                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1780                ]
1781
1782            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1783
1784        if self.pretty:
1785            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1786            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1787            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1788            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1789            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1790
1791        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1792        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1793        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1795    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1796        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1798    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1799        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1800        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1801        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1803    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1804        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1806    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1807        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1808        if group_by_all is True:
1809            modifier = " ALL"
1810        elif group_by_all is False:
1811            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1812        else:
1813            modifier = ""
1814
1815        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1816
1817        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1818        grouping_sets = (
1819            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1820        )
1821
1822        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1823        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1824            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1825        else:
1826            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1827            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1828
1829        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1830        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1831            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1832        else:
1833            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1834            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1835
1836        groupings = csv(
1837            grouping_sets,
1838            cube_sql,
1839            rollup_sql,
1840            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1841            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1842        )
1843
1844        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1845            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1846
1847        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1849    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1850        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1851        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1853    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1854        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1855        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1856        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1857        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1858        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1859        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1861    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1862        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1864    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1865        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1866            side = None
1867        else:
1868            side = expression.side
1869
1870        op_sql = " ".join(
1871            op
1872            for op in (
1873                expression.method,
1874                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1875                side,
1876                expression.kind,
1877                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1878            )
1879            if op
1880        )
1881        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1882        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1883        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1884        using = expression.args.get("using")
1885
1886        if not on_sql and using:
1887            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1888
1889        this = expression.this
1890        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1891
1892        if on_sql:
1893            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1894            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1895            if using:
1896                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1897            else:
1898                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1899        elif not op_sql:
1900            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1901                return f" {this_sql}"
1902
1903            return f", {this_sql}"
1904
1905        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1906        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1908    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1909        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1910        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1911        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1913    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1914        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1915
1916        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1917        if cross_apply is True:
1918            op = "INNER JOIN "
1919        elif cross_apply is False:
1920            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1921        else:
1922            op = ""
1923
1924        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1926    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1927        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1928
1929        if expression.args.get("view"):
1930            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1931            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1932            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1933            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1934            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1935            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1936
1937        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1938        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1939        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1941    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1942        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1943
1944        args = [
1945            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1946            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1947            if e
1948        ]
1949
1950        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1951        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1952        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1953        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1954
1955        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1957    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1958        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1959        value = expression.expression
1960        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1961        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1962        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1963        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1965    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1966        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1967        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1969        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1970        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1971        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1972        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1973        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1975    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1976        expressions = (
1977            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1978        )
1979        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1980        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1982    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1983        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1985    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1986        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1987            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1988            return ""
1989
1990        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1991        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1992        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1993        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1994
1995        if wait is not None:
1996            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1997                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1998            else:
1999                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2000
2001        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2003    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2004        text = expression.this or ""
2005        if expression.is_string:
2006            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2007        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2009    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2010        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2011            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2012            text = "".join(
2013                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2014            )
2015
2016        if self.pretty:
2017            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
2018
2019        return text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2021    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2022        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2023        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2024        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2025        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2026        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2027        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2028        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2029        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2030        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2031        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2032        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2034    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2035        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2037    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2038        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2040    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2041        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2042        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2043        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2044        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2045        interpolated_values = [
2046            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2047            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2048        ]
2049        interpolate = (
2050            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2051        )
2052        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2054    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2055        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2056        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2057        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2058        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2059        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2060        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2061        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2063    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2064        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2066    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2067        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2069    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2070        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2072    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2073        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2074        asc = not desc
2075
2076        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2077        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2078        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2079        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2080        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2081
2082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2083
2084        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2085        nulls_sort_change = ""
2086        if nulls_first and (
2087            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2088        ):
2089            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2090        elif (
2091            nulls_last
2092            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2093            and not nulls_are_last
2094        ):
2095            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2096
2097        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2098        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2099            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2100            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2101                self.unsupported(
2102                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2103                )
2104                nulls_sort_change = ""
2105            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2106                if expression.this.is_int:
2107                    self.unsupported(
2108                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2109                    )
2110                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2111                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2112                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2113                nulls_sort_change = ""
2114
2115        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2116        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2117
2118        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2120    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2121        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2122        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2123
2124        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2125
2126        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2128    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2129        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2130        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2131        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2132        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2133        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2134        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2135        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2136        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2137        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2138        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2139        definition_sqls = [
2140            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2141            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2142        ]
2143        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2144        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2145        body = "".join(
2146            (
2147                partition,
2148                order,
2149                measures,
2150                rows,
2151                after,
2152                pattern,
2153                define,
2154            )
2155        )
2156        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2157        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2158        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2160    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2161        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2162
2163        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2164            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2165        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2166            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2167
2168        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2169        if options:
2170            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2171
2172        return csv(
2173            *sqls,
2174            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2175            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2176            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2177            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2178            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2179            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2180            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2181            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2182            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2183            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2184            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2185            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2186            options,
2187            sep="",
2188        )
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2190    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2191        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2193    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2194        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2195    ) -> t.List[str]:
2196        return [
2197            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2198            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2199        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2201    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2202        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2203        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2204        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2206    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2207        into = expression.args.get("into")
2208        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2209            into.pop()
2210
2211        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2212        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2213        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2214        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2215
2216        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2217        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2218            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2219            limit.pop()
2220        else:
2221            top = ""
2222
2223        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2224
2225        if kind:
2226            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2227                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2228            else:
2229                if kind == "STRUCT":
2230                    expressions = self.expressions(
2231                        sqls=[
2232                            self.sql(
2233                                exp.Struct(
2234                                    expressions=[
2235                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2236                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2237                                        else e
2238                                        for e in expression.expressions
2239                                    ]
2240                                )
2241                            )
2242                        ]
2243                    )
2244                kind = ""
2245
2246        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2247        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2248        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2249        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2250        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2251            expression,
2252            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2253            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2254            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2255        )
2256
2257        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2258
2259        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2260            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2261                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2262            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2263                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2264            else:
2265                table_kind = ""
2266            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2267
2268        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2270    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2271        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2272        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2273        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2275    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2276        if expression.expressions:
2277            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2278        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2280    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2281        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2282        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2283        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2284        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2285        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2287    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2288        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2289        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2291    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2292        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2293        kind = expression.text("kind")
2294        if kind:
2295            kind = f"{kind}."
2296        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2298    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2299        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2301    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2302        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2303        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2304
2305        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2306        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2307
2308        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2309        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2311    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2312        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2313        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2315    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2316        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2317        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2318
2319        while stack:
2320            node = stack.pop()
2321
2322            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2323                stack.append(node.expression)
2324                stack.append(
2325                    self.maybe_comment(
2326                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2327                        expression=node.this,
2328                        comments=node.comments,
2329                    )
2330                )
2331                stack.append(node.this)
2332            else:
2333                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2334
2335        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2336        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2337        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2339    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2340        return self.set_operations(expression)
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2342    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2343        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2344        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2345        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2346        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2348    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2349        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2350
2351        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2352        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2353
2354        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2355            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2356                alias.append("columns", offset)
2357
2358        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2359            columns = alias.columns
2360            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2361        else:
2362            alias = self.sql(alias)
2363
2364        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2365        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2366            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2367        else:
2368            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2369                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2370            elif offset:
2371                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2372            else:
2373                suffix = alias
2374
2375        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2377    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2378        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2380    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2381        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2382        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2384    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2385        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2386        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2387        order = expression.args.get("order")
2388        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2389        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2390        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2391        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2392
2393        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2394
2395        first = expression.args.get("first")
2396        if first is None:
2397            first = ""
2398        else:
2399            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2400
2401        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2402            return f"{this} {alias}"
2403
2404        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2405        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2407    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2408        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2409        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2411    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2412        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2413        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2414        end = (
2415            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2416            or "CURRENT ROW"
2417        )
2418        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2420    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2421        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2422        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2423        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2425    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2426        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2427        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2428        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2429        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2431    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2432        return apply_index_offset(
2433            expression.this,
2434            expression.expressions,
2435            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2436        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2438    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2439        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2440        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2441        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2443    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2444        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2446    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2447        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2448        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2449            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2450                this = self.wrap(this)
2451            return f"ANY{this}"
2452        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2454    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2455        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2457    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2458        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2459        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2460
2461        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2462            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2463            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2464
2465        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2466
2467        if default:
2468            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2469
2470        statements.append("END")
2471
2472        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2473            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2474
2475        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2477    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2478        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2479        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2480        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2482    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2483        order = expression.args.get("order")
2484        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2485        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2487    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2488        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2489        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2490        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2492    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2493        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2494
2495        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2496            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2497        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2498            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2499        else:
2500            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2502    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2503        args = expression.expressions
2504        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2505            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2506
2507        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2508            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2509
2510        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2511            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2512
2513        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2515    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2516        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2517
2518        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2519        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2520            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2521
2522        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2524    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2525        return self.func(
2526            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2527        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2529    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2530        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2531        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2533    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2534        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2535        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2536        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2537        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2538        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2539        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2540        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2541        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2543    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2544        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2545        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2546        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2547        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2549    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2550        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2552    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2553        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2554        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2555        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2557    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2558        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2560    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2561        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2562        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2564    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2565        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2566            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2567            if not callable(transform):
2568                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2569                return ""
2570
2571            return transform(self, expression)
2572
2573        if isinstance(expression, int):
2574            return str(expression)
2575
2576        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2577            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2578            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2579        else:
2580            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2581            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2582
2583        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2585    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2586        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2588    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2589        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2590        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2591
2592        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2593        if unique_keys is not None:
2594            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2595        else:
2596            unique_keys = ""
2597
2598        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2599        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2600        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2601        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2602
2603        return self.func(
2604            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2605            *expression.expressions,
2606            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2607        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2609    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2610        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2612    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2613        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2614        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2615        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2616        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2617        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2618        return self.func(
2619            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2620        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2622    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2623        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2624        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2625        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2626        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2627        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2628        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2629        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2630        return self.func(
2631            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2632            this,
2633            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2634        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2636    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2637        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2638        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2639        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2640
2641        if nested_schema:
2642            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2643
2644        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2645        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2646        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2647        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2649    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2650        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2652    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2653        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2654        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2655        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2656        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2657        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2658        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2659        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2660        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2661        return self.func(
2662            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2663        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2665    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2666        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2667        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2668        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2669        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2670        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2671        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2673    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2674        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2675        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2676        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2677        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2678        with_ = (
2679            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2680            if expressions
2681            else ""
2682        )
2683        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2685    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2686        query = expression.args.get("query")
2687        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2688        field = expression.args.get("field")
2689        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2690
2691        if query:
2692            in_sql = self.wrap(self.sql(query))
2693        elif unnest:
2694            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2695        elif field:
2696            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2697        else:
2698            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2699
2700        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2702    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2703        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2705    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2706        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2707        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2708            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2709        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2710
2711        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2712            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2713            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2714
2715        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2716        if this:
2717            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2718            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2719
2720        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2722    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2723        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2725    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2726        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2727        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2728        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2729        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2730        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2731        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2733    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2734        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2736    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2737        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2738        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2740    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2741        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2742        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2743        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2744        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2746    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2747        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2749    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2750        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2751        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2752        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2754    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2755        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2756        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2757
2758        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2759            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2760        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2761            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2762
2763        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2765    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2766        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2768    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2769        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2770        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2771        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2773    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2774        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2775        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2776        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2778    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2779        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2780        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2781        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2783    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2784        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2786    def and_sql(
2787        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2788    ) -> str:
2789        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2791    def or_sql(
2792        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2793    ) -> str:
2794        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2796    def xor_sql(
2797        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2798    ) -> str:
2799        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2801    def connector_sql(
2802        self,
2803        expression: exp.Connector,
2804        op: str,
2805        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2806    ) -> str:
2807        if stack is not None:
2808            if expression.expressions:
2809                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2810            else:
2811                stack.append(expression.right)
2812                if expression.comments:
2813                    for comment in expression.comments:
2814                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2815                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2816            return op
2817
2818        stack = [expression]
2819        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2820        ops = set()
2821
2822        while stack:
2823            node = stack.pop()
2824            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2825                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2826            else:
2827                sql = self.sql(node)
2828                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2829                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2830                else:
2831                    sqls.append(sql)
2832
2833        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2834        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2836    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2837        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2839    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2840        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2842    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2843        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2845    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2846        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2848    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2849        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2851    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2852        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2854    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2855        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2856        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2857        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2858        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2859        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2860        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2861        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2863    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2864        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2865        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2867    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2868        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2870    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2871        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2872            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2873        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2875    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2876        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2878    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2879        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2880        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2881        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2882        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2883        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2884        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2886    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2887        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2888        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2889        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2890        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2891        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2892        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2893        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2894        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2895        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2897    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2898        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2899        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2900        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2901        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2902
2903        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2904            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2905
2906        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2908    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2909        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2911    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2912        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2913        if chain is not None:
2914            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2915
2916        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2918    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2919        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2920        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2921        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2923    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2924        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2925
2926        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2927        if dtype:
2928            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2929            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2930            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2931            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2932            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2933
2934        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2935        if default:
2936            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2937
2938        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2939        if comment:
2940            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2941
2942        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2943            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2944
2945        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2947    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2948        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2949            # Remove db from tables
2950            expression = expression.transform(
2951                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2952            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2953        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2954        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
2956    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2957        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2958        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2959        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2960        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2962    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2963        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2964
2965        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2966            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2967        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2968            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2969        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2970            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2971        else:
2972            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2973
2974        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2975        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2976        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2977        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
2978        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2980    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2981        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2982            return self.expressions(
2983                expression,
2984                key="actions",
2985                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2986            )
2987        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2989    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2990        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2991        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2992        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2994    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2995        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2997    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2998        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2999
3000        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3001            case = exp.case()
3002            for arg in expression.expressions:
3003                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3004            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3005
3006        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3007
3008        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3009        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3010        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3012    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3013        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3015    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3016        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3018    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3019        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3020        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3021        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3022        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3024    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3025        return self.sql(
3026            exp.Cast(
3027                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3028                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3029            )
3030        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3032    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3033        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3034            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
3035        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3037    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3038        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3039
3040        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3041            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3042
3043        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3044            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3045                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3046
3047        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3048            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3049                return self.sql(
3050                    exp.cast(
3051                        l / r,
3052                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3053                    )
3054                )
3055
3056        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3058    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3059        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3061    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3062        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3064    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3065        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3067    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3068        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3070    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3071        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3073    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3074        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3076    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3077        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3079    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3080        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3082    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3083        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3085    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3086        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3088    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3089        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3091    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3092        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3093            return self.sql(
3094                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3095            )
3096        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3098    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3099        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3101    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3102        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3104    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3105        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3107    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3108        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3110    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3111        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3113    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3114        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3116    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3117        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3119    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3120        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3122    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3123        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3125    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3126        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3128    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3129        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3131    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3132        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3134    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3135        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3137    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3138        this = expression.this
3139        expr = expression.expression
3140
3141        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3142            this, expr = expr, this
3143        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3144            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3145                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3146
3147            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3148
3149        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3151    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3152        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3153        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3154        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3155        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3156        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3158    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3159        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3160        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3162    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3163        args = []
3164
3165        for key in expression.arg_types:
3166            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3167
3168            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3169                for value in arg_value:
3170                    args.append(value)
3171            elif arg_value is not None:
3172                args.append(arg_value)
3173
3174        if self.normalize_functions:
3175            name = expression.sql_name()
3176        else:
3177            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3178
3179        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
3181    def func(
3182        self,
3183        name: str,
3184        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3185        prefix: str = "(",
3186        suffix: str = ")",
3187    ) -> str:
3188        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3190    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3191        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3192        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
3193            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3194        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
3196    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
3197        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3199    def format_time(
3200        self,
3201        expression: exp.Expression,
3202        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3203        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3204    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3205        return format_time(
3206            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3207            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3208            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3209        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
3211    def expressions(
3212        self,
3213        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3214        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3215        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3216        flat: bool = False,
3217        indent: bool = True,
3218        skip_first: bool = False,
3219        sep: str = ", ",
3220        prefix: str = "",
3221    ) -> str:
3222        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3223
3224        if not expressions:
3225            return ""
3226
3227        if flat:
3228            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3229
3230        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3231
3232        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3233        if self.pretty:
3234            if self.leading_comma:
3235                pad = " " * len(sep)
3236            else:
3237                stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3238
3239        result_sqls = []
3240        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3241            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3242            if not sql:
3243                continue
3244
3245            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3246
3247            if self.pretty:
3248                if self.leading_comma:
3249                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3250                else:
3251                    result_sqls.append(
3252                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3253                    )
3254            else:
3255                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3256
3257        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
3258        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3260    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3261        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3262        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3263        if flat:
3264            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3265        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3267    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3268        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3269        if not property_name:
3270            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3271        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3273    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3274        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3276    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3277        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3279    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3280        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3281        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3282        expressions = (
3283            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3284        )
3285        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3287    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3288        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3289        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3290        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3292    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3293        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3295    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3296        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3297        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3298        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3299        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3300
3301        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3302        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3303            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3304            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3305                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3306        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3307            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3308                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3309            else:
3310                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3311        else:
3312            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3313        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3315    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3316        table = expression.this
3317        table_alias = ""
3318
3319        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3320        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3321            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3322            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3323
3324        this = self.sql(table)
3325        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3326        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3327        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3328
3329        return self.prepend_ctes(
3330            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3331        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3333    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3334        if expression.args.get("format"):
3335            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3336
3337        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3339    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3340        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3341            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3342            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3343
3344        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3345        if not fmt:
3346            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3347            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3348
3349        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3351    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3352        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3353        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3354        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3355        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3356        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3358    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3359        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3360        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3361        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3362        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3364    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3365        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3367    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3368        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3370    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3371        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3372        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3373        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3374        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3375        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3377    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3378        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3379        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3380
3381        if having:
3382            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3383
3384        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3386    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3387        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3388        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3389        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3390        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3391        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3392        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3393        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3394        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3395        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3396        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3397        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3398        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3399        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3401    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3402        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3403        if key_block_size:
3404            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3405
3406        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3407        if using:
3408            return f"USING {using}"
3409
3410        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3411        if parser:
3412            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3413
3414        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3415        if comment:
3416            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3417
3418        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3419        if visible is not None:
3420            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3421
3422        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3423        if engine_attr:
3424            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3425
3426        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3427        if secondary_engine_attr:
3428            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3429
3430        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3431        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3433    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3434        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3435        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3437    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3438        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3439        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3440        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3441        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3442        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3443        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3444        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3445        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3446        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3447        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3448        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3450    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3451        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3452            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3453
3454        case = exp.Case().when(
3455            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3456            expression.args["true"],
3457            copy=False,
3458        )
3459        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3460        if else_cond:
3461            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3462
3463        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3465    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3466        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3467        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3468        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3469        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3470        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3471        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3473    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3474        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3476    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3477        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3479    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3480        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3481        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3482        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3483        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3484        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3485        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3487    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3488        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3489        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3490        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3492    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3493        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3494        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3495        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3497    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3498        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3500    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3501        arg = expression.this
3502        if not arg.type:
3503            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3504
3505            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3506
3507        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3508            return self.sql(arg)
3509
3510        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3511        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3513    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3514        this = expression.this
3515        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3516            return self.sql(this)
3517
3518        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3520    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3521        this = expression.this
3522        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3523            return self.sql(this)
3524
3525        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "timestamp"))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3527    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3528        this = expression.this
3529        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3530
3531        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3532            return self.sql(
3533                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3534            )
3535
3536        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3537            return self.sql(this)
3538
3539        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3541    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3542        return self.sql(
3543            exp.func(
3544                "DATEDIFF",
3545                expression.this,
3546                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3547                "day",
3548            )
3549        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3551    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3552        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3553            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3554
3555        unit = expression.text("unit")
3556        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3557            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3558
3559        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3561    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3562        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3563
3564        return self.func(
3565            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3566        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3568    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3569        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3570            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3571            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3572            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3573            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3574
3575        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3576
3577        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3578        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3579            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3580
3581        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def generateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3583    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3584        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3585        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3587    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3588        expression.set(
3589            "expressions",
3590            [
3591                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3592                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3593                else e
3594                for e in expression.expressions
3595            ],
3596        )
3597
3598        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3600    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3601        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3602        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3603
3604        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3606    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3607        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3608        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3609
3610        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3611
3612        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3613        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3614
3615        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3616        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3617
3618        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3619        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3620
3621        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3622        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3623
3624        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3628    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3629        to = expression.this
3630        value = expression.expression
3631        style = expression.args.get("style")
3632        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3633        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3634
3635        if not to or not value:
3636            return ""
3637
3638        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3639        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3640            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3641
3642        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3643        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3644
3645        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3646        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3647            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3648
3649            style_value = style.name
3650            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3651            if not converted_style:
3652                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3653
3654            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3655
3656            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3657                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3658            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3659                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3660            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3661                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3662            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3663                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3664
3665        if not transformed:
3666            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3667
3668        return self.sql(transformed)